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INJURIOUS INSECTS 



THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 

NEW YORK ■ BOSTON • CHICAGO 
DALLAS • SAN FRANCISCO 

MACMILLAN & CO., Limited 

LONDON • BOMBAY • CALCUTTA 
MELBOURNE 

THE MACMILLAN CO. OF CANADA, Ltd. 

TORONTO 




The Colorado Potato-beetle. 

Forerunner of Modern Methods of Insect Control. 

Original. See pages 63 and 145. 



INJURIOUS INSECTS 



HOW TO EECOGNIZE AND CONTROL THEM 



BT 

WALTER C. O'KANE 

;/ 
ENTOMOLOGIST TO THE NEW HAMPSHIRE EXPERIMENT STATION 
AND PROFESSOR OF ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY IN 
NEW HAMPSHIRE COLLEGE 



ILLUSTRATED WITH 600 OBIGINAL PHOTOGRAPHS 



Neb} gork 

THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 

1912 

All rights reserved 



<0 



<^t 



Copyright, 1912, 
By the MACMILLAN COMPANY. 



Set up and electrotyped. Published November, 1912. 



NorfaootJ iPregg 

J. S. Gushing Co. — Berwick & Smith Co. 

Norwood, Mass., U.S.A. 



€:C(.A32?933 



TO 

HEEBERT OSBORN 

DEVOTED SCIENTIST • IISrSPIRING TEACHER 
GENUINE FRIEND 



ACKNOWLEDGMENT 

The author wishes to acknowledge his obligation to the many 
friends and co-workers who loaned or gave specimens needed for the 
preparation of the illustrations in this book. 

While all of the illustrations are original and are prepared from 
photographs by the author, it would not have been possible to carry 
through this part of the work without the help of others. 

The late Dr. J. B. Smith gave freely many excellent specimens 
from his collections. A great deal of valuable material was furnished 
by Dr. E. P. Felt. Special acknowledgment is due also to Dr. L. 0. 
Howard and his associates, Mr. A. L. Quaintance, Dr. F. H. Chitten- 
den, Mr. W. D. Hunter, Mr. F. M. Webster, Mr. E. A. Schwarz, Dr. 
A. D. Hopkins, Dr. H. G. Dyar, Mr. So A. Rohwer, and Mr. Otto 
Heidemann. 

Similar generous courtesies were extended by Dr. W. E. Britton, 
Mr. P. J. Parrott, Professor G. W. Herrick, Dr. S. A. Forbes, Pro- 
fessor H. A. Gossard, Professor H. Osborn, Professor C. P. Gillette, 
Dr. T. J. Headlee, Professor F. L. Washburn, Professor Wilmon 
Newell, Professor R. H. Pettit, Dr. E. D. Ball, Mr. E. L. Worsham, 
Dr. H. T. Fernald, Prof. Franklin Sherman, Jr., Dr. W. E. Hinds, 
Professor H. Garman, Mr. Lawson Caesar, Professor T. B. Symons, 
Mr. N. E. Shaw, Dr. E. G. Titus, Dr. Leonard Haseman, Dr. Edith 
M. Patch, Prof. R. L. Webster, Mr. J. S. Houser, Prof. A. G. Ruggles, 
Mr. C. R. Crosby, Mr. F. E. Brooks, Mr. Patricio Cardin, Mr. J. J. 
Davis, Dr. H. J. Franklin, and Mr. W. S. Abbott. 

Grateful acknowledgment is here made to the author's assistants. 
Miss Cornelia F. Kephart and Mr. C. H. Hadley, Jr., for their invalu- 
able and skillful help throughout the work of preparing both illustra- 
tions and manuscript. 



ARRANGEMENT OF INJURIOUS SPECIES IN 
THIS BOOK 

The insect pests described in this book are grouped as follows : 

1. Pests of garden and field crops; including all injurious species 
commonly found on such plants as corn, potatoes, cucumbers, wheat, 
squashes, and the like. With these are included pests of greenhouses. 

2. Pests of orchard and small fruits: the common injurious species 
of apples and other tree fruits, currants and similar bush fruits, and 
strawberries or other low-growing plants, usually designated as fruits. 

3. Pests of the household, of stored products, and of domestic ani- 
mals. These comprise the common injurious species that do not feed 
on living plants. 

Within each of the first two groups the various species are arranged 
according to the place where they are found at work. Thus, insects that 
work within the soil are treated first; then the borers found within 
stem, trunk, or imb; then the pests found feeding on the surface of 
stem or trunk; then the leaf feeders; and finally the insects attacking 
flower or fruit. Among leaf feeders, again, the insects are grouped 
according to their general characteristics, whether caterpillars, sucking 
bugs, and so on. 

The page headings are arranged to serve as an index to the place 
where an insect is found at work, and its general characteristics. 

The author hopes by this means to facilitate the identification of a 
pest by those who are not familiar with insects, and to avoid as 
far as possible the duplication inevitable where one attempts to group 
pests according to host plants — a confusion unavoidable because so 
many of our common pests feed on several varieties of plants, and 
may properly be listed as well under one as under another. 



IX 



CONTENTS 



I. 

II. 

III. 

w. 

V. 

VI. 

VII. 

VIII. 

IX. 

X. 

XI. 

XII. 

XIII. 

XIV. 

XV. 

XVI. 

XVII. 

XVIII. 

XIX. 

XX. 



Introduction 3 

The Parts of an Insect's Body 7 

The Internal Structure of Insects .... 11 

The Senses of Insects 16 

The Behavior of Insects . . . . . .18 

How Insects Transform 19 

How Insects are Classified 22 

How Insects Spread ... .o.. 40 

Insects as Carriers of Disease ..... 42 

The Natural Enemies of Insects .... 45 

Farm Practice in Relation to Insect Control . 55 

Direct Control by Mechanical Means ... 59 

Insecticides — General Principles ... 63 

Poison Insecticides — For Biting Insects . . 65 

Contact Insecticides — For Sucking Insects . . 70 

Repellents . . 79 

fumigants 80 

Fungicides Combined with Poisons .... 85 
Spray Machinery — General Principles ... 89 
Types and Sizes of Spray Pumps. Dusting Appa- 
ratus . . . . ' 92 

Accessories 100 

Insect Pests of Garden and Field Crops . . 107 
Insect Pests of Orchard and Small Fruits . . 224 
Insect Pests of the Household and Stored Prod- 
ucts 349 

Insect Pests of Domestic Animals .... 371 
xi 



PART I 

THE STRUCTURE, HABITS, AND CLASSI 
FICATION OF INSECTS 



INJURIOUS II^SECTS 

CHAPTER I 

Introduction 

The Tax paid to Insects 

Insects exact of the human race an enormous toll in property injured 
and destroyed. Unfortunately, in the interrelations of life, most things 
that man desires, uses, or needs are the natural food of one or another 
species of insect, usually of many. 

Specific examples of insect depredations give one some notion of the 
total. Thus, in a limited area in southern Indiana and near-by counties, 
a species of cutworm attacking corn caused a loss in one year, 1908, of 
$200,000. The tobacco flea beetle in a single season, in Kentucky and 
Tennessee, infhcted damage to the extent of $2,000,000. Injury 
by a plant louse, the pea aphis, in two years of abundance, was esti- 
mated at $7,000,000. In the Black Hills National Forest, a species of 
beetle has destroyed timber representing at least 1,000,000,000 feet of 
lumber. The annual price of the boll weevil to cotton growers is figured 
at $15,000,000 to $30,000,000. Losses due to the cattle tick reach a 
total of $40,000,000 each season. In a single year of excessive abun- 
dance the Hessian fly exacted from our farmers an estimated total of 
$100,000,000. In Ohio the yield of wheat in that one season dropped 
from 15 bushels per acre to 6. The ravages of the chinch bug in our 
crops of wheat and corn in the last 60 years are believed to reach the 
sum of $350,000,000. 

Yet these examples are but one phase of the matter, representing a 
few of the notable insect outbreaks that have been studied and esti- 

3 



4 INTRODUCTION- 

mated. By far the greater part of the annual toll goes unrecorded, — 
often unnoticed. Each season every crop on every farm pays its tax, 
whether large or small, to the busy, six-footed creatures that look to it 
for food. It is only when we stop to consider what this total must be, 
reckoned as a percentage of the value of all crops combined, that its 
tremendous proportions become evident. 

The best observers agree that, in the average, insect depredations 
equal at least 10 per cent of the value of all farm crops. Our agricul- 
tural products in this country have now reached an annual worth of 
$10,000,000,000. The total damage wrought by insects, therefore, may 
fairly be placed at $1,000,000,000 each season! This is nearly five 
times as great as the combined appropriations for the United States 
army and navy; is equal to the entire bonded debt of the United 
States ; is more than four times the annual property loss by fire ; more 
than fourteen times the annual income of all colleges in this country ; 
is sixty times greater than the funds allotted annually to the United 
States Department of Agriculture. 

Value of a Knowledge of Insects 

Unquestionably, the loss due to insect attack may be reduced ma- 
terially by the adoption of proper methods of prevention and control. 
In many cases, the program to adopt involves no direct fighting, such as 
spraying, but simply the shaping of farm, garden, or orchard practice 
along lines unfavorable to the insects concerned — such matters as 
judicious rotation of crops, or cleaning fields of weeds. To-day's 
warfare against insect pests strives toward prevention as well as cure. 

In order to plan our campaign intelligently we need to know the 
more important general facts about insects as a class : the main charac- 
teristics of the different groups with which we have to deal ; how they 
have fitted themselves to survive and multiply; what measures of 
control are adapted to particular groups ; how the structure and habits 
of one group render it susceptible to certain kinds of control measures, 
such as spraying, while in other groups wholly different measures are 
necessary. To know these general facts is to possess a fundamental 
advantage in conducting -successful warfare. Not to know them usu- 



CHARACTERISTICS OF INSECTS ' 5 

ally means the loss of time and money in attempting unsuitable remedies 
or neglecting good opportunities. 



Characteristics of Insects 

The place of insects in the animal world is in a group known as 
Arthropoda, a word meaning " jointed foot." They are related on the 
one hand to spiders, scorpions, and cen- 
tipedes, and on the other to crabs, 
crayfish, and the other crustaceans. 
With these animals they have various 
points in common ; for example, a hard- 
ened body wall or " external skeleton," 
jointed legs occurring always in pairs, 
and a body made up of distinct rings or 
segments. 

Other characteristics are peculiar to 
insects alone, and serve to define them. 
These are as follows : a body composed 
of three distinct regions, head, thorax, 
and abdomen; one pair of compound 

eyes; one pair of antennse, or "feelers"; three pairs of legs; two 
pairs of wings ; and a peculiar, complicated tyj^e of growth, called 
metam.orphosis, by which the individual goes through three or four 
unlike stages in its life round. 




Fig. 1. — A mite. An ar- 
thropod, related to insects. 
Enlarged and natural size. 
Original. 




Fig. 2. — A typical insect, showing the parts of the body and the attachment 
of appendages. Original. 




Fig. 3. — Types of antennae, 
a. pectinate; b, moniliform ; c, filiform; d, lamellate; e, capitate; /, geniculate; g, cla- 
vate ; h, serrate. Original. 

6 



CHAPTER II 



The Parts of an Insect's Body 



The Head 

Adult insects have a more or less distinct head, varying greatly in 
shape according to the habits of the species. 

Prominent on either side, near the top of tlie head, are usually to be 
seen the compound eyes. These 
are very large in some groups, 
such as the horseflies or dragon 
flies, which need to have espe- 
cially good vision, but are absent 
in some other groups, such as 
certain parasites, which have little 
need of the ability to see. A com- 
pound eye is made up of many 
lenses, each with its own sensi- 
tive area and nerve. The num- 
ber of these lenses often is great ; 
the common house fly has about 
4000 on each side. 

Between or above the compound 
eyes are usually three simple eyes, 
out readily by looking closely. 

Near the compound eyes are the antennae, or " feelers." Their 
shape is diverse with the different groups, and is one of the valuable 
means of determining the identity of many insects, or of placing a 
specimen in its proper group. Eight or ten general types of antennae 
are recognized. 

7 




Fig. 4. — Head of a beetle, showing 
mouth parts. Enlarged and natural 
size. Original. 

These are small, but can be made 



8 THE PARTS OF AN INSECT'S BODY 

The remaining prominent structures on the head of an insect are 
the mouth parts. From a practical standpoint, there is no other 
one thing in the makeup of an insect's body so important as the type 
of mouth parts in a given pest. 

All insects may be divided into two classes, according to whether 
they obtain their food by biting and chewing, or by sucking ; in other 
words, whether they have biting or sucking mouth parts. 




Fig. 5. — Mouth parts of a beetle. 
a, labrum; b, mandibles; c, maxillae; d, labium; e, hypopharynx. Original. 



If we examine the head of a beetle, for instance, we shall find that 
it possesses a distinct pair of jaws, or mandibles, obviously intended 
for chewing or biting. Above these is an upper Up, or labrum ; below 
is a pair of maxillae, serving to hold the food and otherwise to assist 
in eating ; and below these a lower lip or labium. If we look closely, 
we shall be able to find between the mouth parts the insect's tongue, 
or hypopharynx. 



HEAD AND THORAX 



9 



But if we observe the head of a squash bug, we find no jaws or other 
parts that would serve to chew or bite. Instead there is a stout beak, . 
and if we were to dissect this, w^e should 
find that it contained a tube for sucking 
up plant juices or other fluids. In ad- 
dition, we should find in most insects of 
this type, two or three pairs of lancets within 
or close to the beak, used to puncture or 
rasp the tissues so as to induce a greater 
flow of the 
juices. 

Insects with 
l)iting mouth 
parts may be 
killed by cov- 
ering the plant 
on which they 
feed with a 
poison, such as 
lead arsenate. 
But insects 
with sucking 
mouth parts 
do not eat the surface of the plant and cannot be killed by applica- 
tions of stomach poison. For the latter other remedies must be 
used, such as some substance that will kill the insect by corrosive 

action on its body. 

The Thorax 

The middle part of an insect's body is called the thorax. Usually 
it has three distinct rings, or segments. On each segment is a pair 
of legs and on each of the last two is a pair of wings, except in the 
group of two-winged flies, which have only a single pair, on the middle 
segment. 

An insect's leg consists, typically, of a small joint next the body, 
the trochanter; a large and heavy joint, the femur; a slender tibia; 





Fig. 6. — Mouth parts of 
a honeybee. Enlarged. 
Original. 



Fig. 7. — Mouth parts of a 
horsefly, fitted for pierc- 
ing and sucking. Enlarged. 
Original. 



10 



THE PARTS OF AN INSECT^ S BODY 




Fig. 8. — Foot of an in- 
sect, showing claws and 
pulvillus. Enlarged. 
Original. 



and a foot, or tarsus, made up of five joints, 
or sometimes less. On the end of the tarsus 
often occur claws between which is a small 
pad, or pulvillus. 

The wings vary greatly in size, shape, and 
texture. They constitute an important char- 
acter in separating insects into various groups, 
as will be seen. For example, beetles are 
easily recognized by the possession of a front 
pair of wings that are hardened or horny 
and serve simply as covers for the large, 
membranous hind wings. 



The Abdomen 

The third, or hind part of an insect's body is called the abdomen. 
It consists often of ten rings or segments, though frequently this 
number is reduced. There are never any legs on the abdomen of the 
adult insect. At the hind extremity in both sexes are the reproduc- 
tive organs. The two sexes are invariably separate in insects, and 
never normally combined in a single individual as in some other forms 
of lower animal life. 



CHAPTER III 



The Internal Structure of Insects 



How Insects Breathe 



All insects, even those hving in water, need air. But their method 
of obtaining it is entirely different from that developed in higher 
animals. No insect has 
nostrils, or any opening in 
its head through which it 
breathes. Instead, there is 
a row of small apertures, 
called spiracles, down each 
side of its body, one on 
each segment, beginning 
with the second or third 
segment of the thorax and 
extending back along the 
rings of the abdomen. The 
spiracles of each side open 
into an air tube running 
lengthwise of the insect, 
just within the body wall. 
From these main tubes 
smaller tubes diverge, and 
these in turn branch and re- 
branch, growing constantly 
smaller, until the finer tubes 
permeate every part of the 
insect, even to the tips of 

the antennae and the joints of the feet. The tubes are known as 
trachese and the entire group as the tracheal system. The smaller 

11 




Fig. 



9. — Tracheal system of an insect, 
gramniatic) Original. 



(Dia- 



12 



THE INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF INSECTS 




Fig. 10. — Spiracles of a grasshopper. 
Enlarged. Original. 



higher animals, whose 
blood circulates in ar- 
teries, veins, and capil- 
laries. In insects the 
blood flows freely around 
the internal organs and 
through the tissues. 

There is a heart, how- 
ever, which keeps the 
blood moving. It is an 
elongated structure, situ- 
ated just beneath the 
upper surface of the in- 
sect's body, and consists 
of a series of chambers, 
each with valves opening 
from the body cavity 
into the chamber, and 
with another valve open- 
ing into the next chamber 
toward the front. The 



tracheae are extremely thin walled, 
and the oxygen that they contain 
is thus brought to the various 
tissues. Air circulates slowly in 
the tracheae. The openings or 
spiracles are guarded by various 
devices, such as a fringe of hairs. 

The Circulatory System 

The entire body cavity of an 
insect is bathed in a yellowish or 
greenish fluid that we speak of as 
its blood. There is no closed 
system of blood vessels, as in the 




Fig. 11. 



An insect's heart. 
Original. 



(Diagrammatic.) 



THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM 



13 



end of the heart toward the head opens into the body cavity. 
When the heart contracts, the blood it contains is forced forward, 
and when it expands, more blood is admitted through the side valves. 

The Digestive System 

There is a fairly close parallel between the digestive system of in- 
sects and that of some higher animals. The various organs concerned 




Fig. 12. — Digestive system of an insect. (Diagrammatic.) Original. 



are much m.odified in many species, according to their food habits; 
but taking a typical group, we find the following parts : 

From the mouth the food passes through a pharynx and is con- 
veyed by a gullet or esophagus to a crop, which serves as a storage 
place. Thence it enters the gizzard, where it is ground up, and so 
passes on into the storaach, where part of the digestion and absorp- 



14 



THE INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF INSECTS 



tion takes place. Thence it enters the intestine, where it is still 
further digested. The waste is expelled from the hind end of the body. 
Opening into the intestine near the stomach are tubes that prob- 
ably serve as kidneys. They are known as Malpighian tubes. 



The Nervous System 

Most insects are extremely active creatures, and have a well-de- 
veloped nervous system. 

Taking a simple type, we find that a pair of nerve cords begin in 

the upper part of the head, 
encircle the esophagus, one 
on each side, again come 
close together or unite, and 
extend back to the hind ex- 
tremity of the body, lying 
just above the lower body 
wall throughout. 

In the upper part of the 
head and in the lower part 
are enlargements, called 
ganglia, from which are 
given off branch nerves to 
the eyes, antennae, and 
mouth parts. In the thorax 
there are three more ganglia, 
one for each segment, though 
these may be more or less 
united. In the abdomen are further ganglia, often somewhat concen- 
trated toward the front end of the abdomen. Many branch nerves 
arise from the thoracic and abdominal gangha. 




Fig. 13. — Gizzard of a cricket, showing 
muscles and grinding surfaces. Enlarged. 
Original. 



The Fat Bodies 

Within the body cavity are many irregular masses of peculiar fatty 
tissue. The functions of these masses are not fully understood. It 
is known, however,, that reserve food is stored up in them, especially 



THE BODY WALLS 15 

in the case of caterpillars that are reaching full growth and getting 
ready to transform. 




Fig. 14. — Nervous system of an insect. (Diagrammatic.) Original. 

The Body Walls 

The bodies of most insects are covered with a more or less horny 
or hard coating, to which the muscles are attached, and which takes 
the place of the bony, internal skeleton of higher animals. The basis 
of this coating is a fluid substance called chitin, which hardens on 
exposure to air. In order to permit of movement, this outer shell is 
made up of distinct plates, joined to one another by flexible skin. 



CHAPTER IV 



The Senses of Insects 



It is obvious that most insects possess a well-developed power of 
sight. It is not believed that they have the ability to form images 
of objects, in other words to " see," with the precision of higher ani- 
mals. To a limited extent the compound eyes probably give an insect 
certain powers of forming images up to a short distance — not 
more than a few feet. They undoubtedly are well adapted to discern 

movement. The ocelli, or simple eyes, 
are formed somewhat on the plan of the 
human eye ; but the lens is of fixed focus, 
and the number of nerves in the retina is 
comparatively small. 

The sense of hearing is well known to 
exist among many insects. The location 
of the auditory apparatus has been de- 
termined in certain species. Thus, the 
antennae of some insects are known to 
have auditory functions; grasshoppers 
have an " ear " on the first segment of 
the abdomen; other species have a 
similar organ on the foreleg. 
Most insects have a sense of taste. The hypopharynx, or tongue, 
and short appendages attached to the maxillae, or lower jaws, are 
commonly the seat of this sense. 

There is abundant evidence of the existence of a sense of smell. 
In fact this sense is particularly well developed in many insects, and 
serves to guide them to their food, to lead the females to the proper 
plants on which to deposit their eggs, and often to bring the male to 

16 




Fig. 15. — Tongue of a cricket. 
Enlarged and natural size 
Original. 



SPECIAL SENSE ORGANS 17 

the female at mating season. Minute structures found in the antennae 
and the maxillary palpi are commonly the seat of the olfactory sense. 
All insects have more or less specially developed parts for exercising 
the sense of touch. The antennae, or " feelers," are primarily adapted 
to serve this function, but hairs or bristles connected with sensory 
nerves occur at various places over the body. This would be expected, 
since the body is so completely covered with its armor of chitin. 



CHAPTER V 
The Behavior of Insects 

Most of the movements of insects are automatic responses to a 
direct external stimulus. For example, ants of certain species always 
move away from the hght ; flies, toward it. Roaches will attempt to 
crowd into narrow crevices, where their body is in close contact all 
around with the surrounding substance. Some kinds of caterpillars 
habitually crawl toward the ends of twigs, or contrary to gravity. 
Aquatic insects move toward water. 

Most of the movements of insects, if carefully analyzed, will be 
found explainable as some of these simple reactions. But there is 
another group of movements that are really complex. An example 
is seen in the spinning of its cocoon by a caterpillar. Here we have 
genuine evidence of the workings of instinct. Yet even these ex- 
amples of insect behavior have one point in common ; they are started 
by some simple stimulus, and once set going, they invariably are 
carried out to the same conclusion, regardless of circumstances. Thus, 
a female codling moth, the parent of the common worm found in 
apples, frequently lays its eggs on the leaves of trees which are bear- 
ing no fruit, with the inevitable result that all its offspring die. 

Rarely, in the highly specialized orders, such as the bees or ants, 
insects are observed to follow a procedure that seems to demand 
some reasoning power as its basis. An indi\'idual apparently will 
learn by experience, and voluntarily modify its procedure in going 
through a similar action. Such cases, however, are not common. 
Most insect behavior is automatic and purely reflex. 



18 



CHAPTER VI 

How Insects Transform 

All insects, except two primitive groups of little importance, go 
through distinct changes of form in the life round of the individual. 
These changes constitute what is known as metamorphosis. 




Fig. 16. — Iliustratinp; complete metamorphosis. Egg, larva or caterpillar, 
cocoon and pupa, and adult of the Rusty Tussock Moth, Hcmerocampa an- 
tiqua Linn. Original. 

Thus, the cabbage butterfly lays an egg. From the egg hatches a 
tiny ■' worm " or larva. The larva grows, and in due time changes 

19 



20 



HOW INSECTS TRANSFORM 



to a '' clirysalis " or pupa. And finally, from the pupa emerges the 
winged butterfly, ready to begin the life round over again. This is 
an example of complete metamorphosis, including four distinct stages — 
egg, larva, pupa, and adult. 

With the squash bug we find the adult laying an egg, as before. 
But from this egg hatches, not a larva or worm, but a tiny, active bug, 




Fig. 17. — Illustrating incomplete metamorphosis. Eggs, nymphs 
of the Squash Bug, Anasa tristis De G. Original. 



and adult 



similar to the parent insect except that it has no wings. This immature 
form grows, shedding its skin four or five times, and finally with the 
last moult acquires its wings and is now a typical adult. The imma- 
ture stage is known as a nymph, and this is an example of incomplete 
metamorphosis, including only three distinct stages instead of four — 
egg, nymph, and adult. 

In all insects the larval or nymph stage is the period of growth. 



TYPES OF METAMORPHOSIS 21 

To this stage belongs primarily the function of feeding and growing. 
The adult insect may or may not feed, but it never grows. To the 
adult stage belongs the function of mating and thus perpetuating the 
race. The pupa, which we find in insects with complete metamor- 
phosis, represents a resting stage devised to accommodate the tre- 
mendous changes taking place in the transformation of the wormlike 
larva into the winged adult. 

The type of metamorphosis constitutes a fundamental character in 
separating insects into groups. 



CHAPTER VII 



How Insects are Classified 



More than 350,000 distinct species of insects have been described. 

In addition at least as many more remain to be studied and classified. 

Obviously, in all this array, there must be certain groups that have 

many characters in 
common, or give 
indication that at 
some period in the 
remote past they 
were derived from 
common ancestors. 
These groups are 
known as Orders. 

There are more 
than twenty recog- 
nized orders of in- 
sects, but the great 
majority of injurious 
species are included 
in ten principal eco- 
nomic orders. The 
leading characteris- 
tics distinguishing 
these from one an- 
other are the type of metamorphosis, the kind of mouth parts, the 
number, shape, and texture of the wings, the presence or absence 
of compound eyes, the type of antennae, and the shape of the body. 
The ten principal orders and their characteristics are as follows: 




Fig. 18. — A typical specimen of the order Orthop- 
tera. Original. 



ORTHOPTERA 



23 



Orthoptera 

Familiar to all are many of the species that go to make up this 
order: the grasshoppers, katydids, crickets, and roaches. 

The entire group is characterized by incomplete metamorphosis. 
The immature form just hatched from an egg is quite similar in appear- 
ance to the adult, except that it is very much smaller, and that it has 
no wings. As it grows, wing pads develop, and finally, with the last 
moult, the adult comes forth. 

All insects in this order have biting mouth parts. There are two 
pairs of wings. The front pair are leathery, and, when at rest, cover the 
hind pair, which are thin 
and papery, and are folded 
in plaits. The antennae 
vary, but frequently are 
quite long and slender. 

The order is divided into 
various subgroups or fami- 
lies. Thus we have the 
jumping Orthoptera, includ- 
ing the Gryllidae or crickets, 
the Acrididae or grasshop- 
pers, and the Locustidse or 
katydids; the running Or- 
thoptera, including the Blat- 

tidae or roaches; the grasping Orthoptera, including the Mantidse 
or praying mantids; and the walking Orthoptera, including the 
peculiar insects known as the Phasmidse or walking sticks. 

There are many injurious pests in this order; some of them, such as 
the Rocky Mountain locust, famous for the devastation that they have 
wrought to American farms. The immature stages, or nymphs, as 
well as the adiTlts, are destructive, though in less degree because they 
are smaller. 




Fig. 19. 



-One of the jumping Orthoptera, 
or GryUidse. Original. 



24 



HOW INSECTS ARE CLASSIFIED 



Mallophaga 

These are parasitic insects, commonly known as bird lice, although 
there are some species that infest domestic animals. 

The metamorphosis is incomplete. Eggs laid by the adult female 

hatch into minute creatures looking 

much like the mature insect. 

The members of this order are 

plainly adapted for their parasitic life. 

The body is flattened. There are no 

compound eyes. Wings are absent. 

The antennae are short and simple. 

The mouth parts are fitted for biting, 

and the food consists of the hairs or 

feathers of the host, or loose scales of 

dead skin. The Mallophaga never 

feed on the blood of their host, as do 

the members of the order Siphonaptera, 

the fleas. 
Fig. 20. — A biting louse. En- ., onnn • -u u j 

larged and natural size. Orig- ^^out 2000 species have been de- 
inal. scribed. 




Odonata 

The adults in this order are the dragon flies, often called " snake 
feeders " or " darning needles." 

Metamorphosis is incomplete. The nymphs, which hatch from the 
eggs, are aquatic, spending their lives beneath the surface of ponds or 
streams, where they lead an active existence, capturing and devouring 
such other forms of animal life as come within their reach. The mouth 
parts of the nymph are peculiarly adapted to its needs, being pro- 
vided with a hinged lower lip which can be extended, and which bears 
hooks on its farther edge. By means of these the nymph is enabled to 
catch its prey unawares. 

The adults arc large insects, and have two pairs of strong, narrow, 



01) ON ATA — THYSANOPTERA 



25 




Fig. 21. — Adult drtigon fly. Original. 



membranous wings. Each wing is marked with a shallow notch about 
midway along its front margin. Adults as well as nymphs are pre- 
dacious, living on other insects which they 
capture. Their mouth parts are of the biting 
type. They have large compound eyes, — as, 
indeed, we should expect in insects that live by 
capturing others. The abdomen is slim, and 
is never provided with a sting of any sort, as 
is so often supposed. 

Insects of this order are of importance be- 
cause they make a business of capturing in- 
dividuals of other species, many of which we 
may reasonably assume would be injurious. 

The order has been carefully studied, and 
about 2000 species have been described. 

Thysanoptera Fig. 22. — The empty 

. pupal skin of a dragon 

I he group to which has been given this ^^ Original. 

name is made up of very small insects, many 

of which the layman will recognize rather by their characteristic work 

than by acquaintance with the appearance of the insect itself. Their 

common name is " Thrips." 




26 



HOW INSECTS ARE CLASSIFIED 




Fig. 23. — Adult 
Euthrips tritici 
Original. 



thrips, 
Fitch. 



Metamorphosis is incomplete. Both 
nymphs and adults are slender insects, pro- 
vided with sucking mouth parts. The adults 
have two pairs of peculiar wings, very nar- 
row, almost without veins, and fringed along 
the margins with a row of long hairs, set 
close together. The wings are laid along 
the back when not in use. In most species 
the adults are not more than one tenth or 
one twelfth of an inch in length. The an- 
tennae are comparatively short and simple. 

Usually the presence of these insects is 
recognized first by a whitening of the leaves 
or a shriveling 
of other parts on 



which they happen to be feeding. Close 
examination will then reveal the tiny 
active insect itself. 



Hemiptera 

A large group, including the true 
" bugs," characterized throughout bj^ 
sucking mouth parts. 

Metamorphosis is incomplete. Active 
nymphs, which look more or less like the 
adults except that they have no wings, 
hatch from the eggs laid by the parent 
female. 

There are two large subdivisions in 
this order, the Homoptera and the Het- 
eroptera, distinguished from each other 
by the type of wings, and the manner in 
which the beak is attached to the head. 

In the Homoptera the wings, four 




Fig. 24. — A cicada. Sub- 
order Homoptera. Original. 



in number, are membranous 
throughout, and when the insect is at rest, usually are held in a slop- 



HEMIPTERA 27 

ing position along the back, like the two sides of a hip roof. The 
common " locust," or cicada, is a familiar example of this suborder. 
In the Homoptera the sucking beak arises from the hind part of 
the lower side of the head. 

The Heteroptera are well illustrated in the '" squash bug." In this 
suborder the front pair of wings are horny in the half nearest the in- 
sect's body, and thinner in the outer half. The hind wings are mem- 
branous throughout. When at rest, the front wings are laid along the 




Fig. 25. — The giant water bug, Lethocerus americanus Leidy. Suborder 
Heteroptera. Original. 

back, with the thin, outer halves crossed, one on top of the other, while 
the hind wings are concealed beneath the front pair. Often, when the 
insect is at rest, its wings look as if they were a part of its body, though 
there is always the tell-tale diagonal line where the thickened part of 
the wing gives way to the thinner part. In the Heteroptera the beak 
arises from the front part of the head, though in many species it is 
sharply bent so that it points backward beneath the head. 
The more important families of Homoptera are as follows : 
Cicadidae, the cicadas or, as commonly called, " locusts." 
Jassidse, the leaf hoppers. Destructive pests. 



28 



HOW INSECTS ABE CLASSIFIED 



PsyllidsD, the psjdlas. Minute, jumping forms. Plant feeders. 
Aphidida?, the plant lice. 
Coccidse, the scale insects and mealy bugs. 
The more important families of Heteroptera are as follows : 
Reduviidse, the assassin bugs. Predaceous on other insects. Occa- 
sionally attack man. Have a strong, 
tliree- jointed beak. 

Tingitidse, the lace bugs. Wings finely 
reticulate, looking like lace. Plant feed- 
ers. 

Acanthiida^, including some plant feed- 
ers ; also the common bedbug. 

Capsidse, the leaf bugs. Usually small. 
Often injurious. 

Lygaeida?, the chinch bugs. Destruc- 
tive plant feeders. 

Coreidse, the squash bugs. Often ill 
smelling. Some species rather large. 

Pentatomidae, the stinkbugs. The 
family includes both plant feeders and 
predaceous forms. 

Thyreocoridse, the negro bugs. Very 
small forms. 

Pediculida:', the sucking hce, parasitic on mammals. 
The number of described species in the Hemiptera exceeds 20,000. 




Fig. 26. — The giant water 
bug, wingvS folded. Sub- 
order Heteroptera. Origi- 
nal. 



Coleoptera 

The order Coleoptera includes the beetles, readily distinguished, as 
a rule, by the fact that the front pair of wings are hardened and act 
simply as horny coverings for the larger, membranous hind wings, 
which are folded beneath the others when at rest. 

Metamorphosis is complete. There are four distinct stages, instead of 
three, as with all the other orders mentioned thus far. Eggs are laid 
by the adults, and from these hatch wormlike larvae, commonly called 



COLEOPTERA 



29 



*' grubs." A resting stage, or pupa, follows the completion of growth 
of the grub. Finally from the i)upa emerges the adult beetle. 



-A 




^'^■. ' "^8!P?^^"^^'^^^H 


w'vS^^HR''^^^ -'^^^^^Hi 


i 


p^ 



Fig. 27. — A beetle, Lachnosterna. Original. 



The mouth parts are formed for biting. In one subgroup within 
this order the head is prolonged in a sort of snout. This is not a 
sucking organ, but bears at its 
end true jaws, adapted for biting 
and chewing. The larvae or 
" grubs " of the snout beetles 
have no legs. 

The antennae are of many dis- 
tinct types, ranging from simple 
filiform or moniliform shapes to 
complex types that can only be 
classed as " irregular." Some of 
the subgroups are commonly des- 
ignated according to the kind of 
antenna; as, for example, the Clavicorns, the 
Serricorns. 




Fig 



— A nout beetle, Rhynchites, 
Enlarged and natural size. Original. 



Lamellicorns, or the 



Something like 20,000 species have been described. 



30 



HOW INSECTS ARE CLASSIFIED 



Larvae and adults feed on decaying 
Both larvae and adults predaceous. 



There are many famiUes, in practically all of which are to be found 
species of importance. A few of the typical families are the following : 

Carabidae, the ground beetles. Active insects both as larvae and as 
adults, and usually predaceous. 

Silphidae, the carrion beetles, 
animal matter. 

Coccinellidae, the lady beetles. 
One of the most beneficial famihes. 

Elateridae, the click beetles. Parents of the wireworms. 

Buprestidae, the adults of the " flat-headed borers." 

Scarabaeidae. Large beetles, well illustrated in the " June bug." 
The larvae of some feed on decaying animal or vegetable matter, while 
others are highly injurious. 

Cerambycidae, the parents of the " round-headed borers." 

Chrysomelidae. Typical leaf eaters. Examples are the potato beetle, 
asparagus beetle, and many others. 

Meloidae, the bhster beetles. 

Curculionidae, the curcuhos. Snout beetles. The larvae legless 

grubs. 

Siphonaptera 

The Siphonaptera in- 
clude the fleas. The order 
is a small one, but is in- 
teresting because of the 
adaptations that it exhibits 
for parasitic or predaceous 
existence. 

Metamorphosis is com- 
plete. From the egg 
hatches a legless larva, slen- 
der and wormlike, which 
later transforms to a pupa, 
and from this in turn 
emerges the adult, ready to 
begin the life round again. 




Fig. 29. — Adult flea. Enlarged. Original. 



SIPHONAPTERA AND DIPTERA 



31 



The adults are practically wingless, though small, scalelike projec- 
tions from the top of the thorax show where the wings should be, and 
perhaps once were. The body is flattened laterally, thus enabhng the 
insect to shp around easily among the hairs of its host. While the sur- 
face of the body is quite smooth and hard, it is provided with regular 
rows of stiff bristles, pointing backward, which help to force the insect 
in the direction in which it wishes to go, and likewise help it to escape 
from the fingers of its captor. A further evidence of its parasitic life 
is seen in the entire absence of compound eyes. The mouth parts are 

fitted for sucking. 

Diptera 

The insects falling within this order are easily recognized from the 
fact that they have only a single pair of membranous wings. The 
order includes the groups that we speak 
of as flies, mosquitoes, midges, and 
gnats. 

Metamorphosis is complete. The 
larva is commonly called a maggot, 
and is without feet. In most species 
it has no distinct head. In many sub- 
groups within this order the pupa or 
resting stage preceding the adult is 
peculiar in that it is inclosed within 
the hardened and shortened skin of 
the larva. 

The single pair of wings borne by 
the adult are on the middle segment 
of the thorax. On the hind segment 
are a pair of small knobs, 'represent- 
ing the second pair of wings found in 
other insects. 

The mouth parts are primarily of the sucking type, but often are 
complex, and frequently are modified so that certain of the parts are 
fitted for piercing or for rasping. Thus, in the horseflies there are 
sharp lancets in addition to the sucking tube, the former penetrating 





J 


^^^A 


\ 


j 


p 


r f 




n 




/h* 


Wpp^M 


y^ 


(" 




W 



Fig. 30. — Adult fly, Tabanus. 
Enlarged to twice natural size. 
Original. 



32 



HOW INSECTS ARE CLASSIFIED 



the tissues and assistinp; in bringing on a generous flow of blood, which 
the latter conveys to the insect's pharynx. In the female mosquito 
similar structures are found, sharp stylets penetrating the flesh and the 
pharynx pumping the blood up through a sucking tube. 

The antennae are of various shapes, from the elaborately feathered 
structures of the male mosquito to the short, peculiar form, orna- 
mented with a prominent bristle, found in man}^ of the so-called 
''flies." 
Classification within the order is complex, and is based partly on the 

manner in which the pupal 
skin is ruptured when the 
adult emerges, partly on 
the tj^pe of antenna, partly 
on the arrangement of the 
veins in the wings, as well 
as other structural pecul- 
iarities. 

More than 40,000 species 
have been described. 

The number of families 
is verj^ large, but among 
the more important groups 
may be mentioned the 
following : 

Culicidae, the mosqui- 
toes. A nuisance to man 
and domestic animals, and in some cases carriers of disease. Larva? 
aquatic, as a rule. 

Chironomidse, the midges (l3ut not the so-called midges attacking 
wheat, clover, and the like). Larvae often aquatic. 

Cecidomyiidse, the gall midges. Many injurious species, some of 
prime importance, as the Hessian fly. 

Simulidae, the black flies. Attack man and domestic animals. 

Tabanidae, the horseflies. 

Asilidae, the robber flies. Predaceous on other insects. 




Fig. 31. — Adult mosquito. Enlarged and 
natural size. Original. 



LEPIDOPTERA 



33 



Syrphidse, the syrphus flies. The larvae of some species are pre- 
daceous on noxious insects. 

(Estridse, the botflies. The larva? are notorious parasites in mam- 
mals. 

Muscidse, a very large family including the common house fly. 

Tachinidse, the tachina flies. The larvse often beneficial because 
attacking noxious insects. 

Anthomyiida?, including the root maggots. 

A special interest attaches to this order because several of its mem- 
bers have been directly connected with the transmission of serious 
human diseases, as discussed in a later chapter. 

Lepidoptera 

The insects included within this order are the moths, the skippers, 
and the butterflies. The main characteristic of the order is the fact 
that the wings and body are covered with minute scales, which are 
arranged in definite patterns and 
often give to the wings beautiful 
and elaborate colors. 

In all Lepidoptera there is com- 
plete metamorphosis. The larva 
is commonly known as a cater- 
pillar, or simply as a " worm," 
the latter term more frequently 
attached to larvae that are not 
covered with hairs. Thus, on the 
one hand, we speak of the cabbage 
worm and the canker worm, on 
the other the tent caterpillar and 
the yellow-necked caterpillar. The 
larvae have three pairs of legs 
near the front end of the body, a single pair of legs or claspers at 
the hind end, and usually two to four pairs of fleshy prolegs between. 

All adults in the order Lepidoptera have four wings, except in cer- 
tain species where the wings are entirely lacking. The mouth parts 




Fig. 32. — Scales from the wing of a 
butterfly, Pontia. Enlarged. Orig- 
inal. 



34 



HOW INSECTS ARE CLASSIFIED 




Fig. 33. — K hutier^y, Argynnis. Original. 



are fitted for sucking. The adults in this group take only liquid 
nourishment, or frequently none at all. The larvae, however, are 

provided with well- 
developed jaws, 
adapted for biting 
and chewing. It is 
in the larval stage 
that the represent- 
atives of this order 
are injurious. The 
moth itself, or but- 
terfly, is harmful 
only in the sense 
that it is the parent 
of a succeeding de- 
structive stage. 
The antennae 
are of three general types, and separate the order into its sub- 
groups. Butterflies have slender antennae composed of a large 
number of indistinct rings or segments, with an enlargement or club 
at the end. In the skippers the club at the end of the antenna is 
somewhat elongated, and is turned back at the farther end in a slender 
hook. The antennae of moths are more or less feathered, often elabo- 
rately so. Butterflies are usu- 
afly on the wing in the day- 
light hours, while moths have 
a tendency to fly at night. 
Butterflies habitually rest with 
their wings folded together ver- 
tically above the body; skip- 
pers may hold the wings in a 
similar position, or may hold 
the front wings vertical and ^^^' 34. -A skipper, A^r^^one. Original. 

the hind wings horizontal; moths habitually rest with their wings 
held horizontal or roof like, or curved around the abdomen. The 




LEPIDOPTERA 



35 



bodies of butterflies are slender ; those of skippers are rather stout ; 
the bodies of moths are typically heavy. 

About 60,000 species are known. In classification among 
this tremendous number use is made of the markings on the wings, but 
especially of the veins in the wings. 

The number of families is very large, and injurious species are found in 
a large proportion of them. Examples are as follows, though this list 
necessarily is brief and by no means representative of the entire order : 



\ ♦ 


'**' "*%. 


..««*- -^i 


^\ 


^~T",.^. 


^H| 


i^fl 


HBh^|2^^s<j£ 


^^ 


n^- 


^ 


w% 


rm 


^ 


)? 


■ --f^ 


r * 


n 


P 





Fig. 35. — A moth, Automeris. Original. 



Cossidse, the carpenter moths. Larvae bore in the trunks or branches 
of trees. Pests of shade trees. 

Pyraustidse. The larvae of many species are leaf rollers, and are 
serious pests. 

Grapholithidae. Adults small. The family includes the codling 
moth, the bud moth, and other pests. 

Tortricidse. The larvae usually work within webs. 

Tineina, a superfamily of very small moths, the larvae of which often 
are leaf miners, but sometimes construct cases within which they feed, 
as in the case-bearing clothes moths. 

Sesiidae, the clear-wing moths. Larvae often borers and very in- 
jurious, as the peach-tree borer, the squash borer, and others. 



36 



HOW INSECTS ABE CLASSIFIED 



Notodontidic. Larvae large and usually feed exposed. Examples 
are the yellow-necked and the red-humped caterpillars. 

Geometridse. Parents of the " measuring- worms." 

Noctuidse. An immense family. The moths fly at night. The 
larvae include many of our worst insect pests, such as the army worm, 
cotton boll-worm, and cutworms. 

Lymantriidae, the tussock moths. 

Sphingidae, the hawk moths. Large insects. Larvae conspicuous. 
Example, the tomato worm. 

Saturniidae, the silkworm moths. Larvae large and armed with 
tubercles or spines. 

Lasiocampidae. The larvae often construct large nests, as the tent 
caterpillar. 

Pieridae. A common family of butterflies, including the imported 
cabbage worm. 

Hymenoptera 

The order Hymenoptera includes the bees, ants, wasps, sawflies, and a 
host of parasitic species, many of which are extremely minute. 

Metamorphosis is complete. The larva is grublike or wormlike. 
Often the pupa is inclosed in a cocoon. 




Fig. 36. — A sawfly. Enlarged and natural size. Original. 



HYMENOPTERA 



37 




Fig. 37. — The saws of a 
sawflj^ Enlarged and nat- 
ural size. Original. 



Adults in this order are characterized by the possession of two 
pairs of wings, both pairs membranous, the front pair larger than 
the hind pair. The mouth parts are com- 
plex, and are adapted for biting and for 
sucking. However, the structure of the 
mouth parts is not usually of direct eco- 
nomic importance, since the adults do not 
habitually feed on or destroy that which is 
of value to man. 

In one subgroup of the Hymenoptera the 
abdomen of the adult is broad at the 
point where it joins the thorax; in other 
words, the insects are "broad waisted." 
This section includes the Tenthredinidse or 
sawflies, a family containing many injurious 
species. The name sawfly is given to this 
family because the end of the abdomen in the adult female is provided 
with genuine saws, which it uses in making a place for the deposition 
of its eggs. Sawfly larvae strongly resemble the larvae of the Lepi- 
doptera, but may be distinguished from them by the number of pro- 
legs — the false legs situated behind the three pairs of genuine legs 
near the fr«nt end of the body. The larvae of sawflies usually have 

six to eight pairs of these pro- 
legs, while those of the butterflies 
or moths have never more than 
five pairs. Examples of injurious 
sawflies are seen in the pear slug 
and the currant worm. 

A closely related subgroup of 
the Hymenoptera comprises a 
number of families in which the 
female is provided with a boring 
apparatus at the hind end of the 
abdomen. These families include some of our important beneficial 
species hving as parasites in the bodies of other insects, the Ichneu- 




FiG. 38. 



An ichneumon, Pimpla. 
Original. 



38 



HOW INSECTS ARE CLASSIFIED 



monidae Chalcididse, and others. With these the abdomen is joined 
to the thorax by a narrow waist. 




Fig. 39. — Adult winged ant. Enlarged and natural size. Original. 

Finally there are the stinging Hymenoptera, which also are narrow- 
waisted, like the boring Hymenoptera. Typical specimens are the 

common bees, wasps, and ants. 

It is within these families 
that we find social develop- 
ment at its height. Few in 
this section are classed as in- 
jurious, the exceptions being 
found principally among the 
ants. 

The stinging Hymenoptera 
are divided into the following 
Fig. 40. — A wasp, Sphecina. Original. SUperfamilies : 




HYMENOPTERA 



39 



Formicina, the ants. Many 
species with high social develop- 
ment. 

Sphecina, the digger wasps. SoU- 
tary in their habits. A large group, 
including many families. 

Vespina, the true wasps. One 
group is sohtary and another social. 

Apina, the bees. Various habits, 
but all collect pollen or honey to 
feed their young. 

The number of described species of Hymenoptera is in excess of 
30,000. 



■ 


^ 




B 


P 

ki 


p^H 


ii 


Hi 





Fig. 41. — A bee, Bombus. Original. 



CHAPTER VIII 
How Insects Spread 

The spread of insects is brought about by a great variety of agencies, 
some of which are within human control, while others are not. It is 
the purpose of this chapter to point out a few of the former as well as 
the latter, and to emphasize the value of taking precautions to prevent 
the spread of noxious species. With many serious pests an ounce of 
prevention is worth a good many pounds of cure. 

Certainly the power of flight possessed by most insects is normally 
their principal means of dispersal to new feeding grounds. Unfor- 
tunately this is a matter usually quite beyond human control. Never- 
theless, as will be seen later, there are barriers even to powers of flight, 
and some of our most injurious pests, which are capable also of sustained 
flight, would never have reached this country at all, or the section where 
they are now a menace, had it not been for other means of dispersal 
entirely within the control of man. 

Strong winds, streams, ocean currents carrying debris or drift 
infested with insects, birds which are known occasionally to bear 
minute forms on their feet — all these are occasional means of the 
dispersal of insects and their introduction into new localities. 

But if we were to reckon up the hundred pests that are working 
greatest havoc with our farms and orchards to-day, we should find that 
at least half of them, if not three fifths, had been introduced, directly 
or indirectly, through the agency of man himself. 

The waj^s in which this comes about arc many. When shrubs or 
trees are imported from foreign countries, they are likely to be infested 
with pests new to this continent. The insect thus imported is apt to 
get a foothold and to develop into a pest of the first magnitude. It was 

40 



MEANS OF SPREAD 41 

in this way that the San Jose scale was brought to the United States, 
and similar circumstances made possible the introduction of the brown- 
tail moth. 

Various substances used as packing for manufactured products im- 
ported from the far corners of the world may harbor threatening insects. 

Fruits, fruit products, or other edibles imported for consumption 
in the United States may, and often do, introduce injurious species. 

Undoubtedly the majority of the pests thus accidentally introduced 
fail to become established and never are heard from. But if only an 
occasional species gains a foothold and multiplies, the results are 
sufficiently disastrous. 

Finally, it happens sometimes that living specimens are imported 
for experiment or study, and through accident are allowed to escape. 
The best-known example of this is found in the gypsy moth, now cost, 
ing New England millions of dollars in attempted suppression or control. 



CHAPTER IX 

Insects as Carriers of Disease 

Within comparatively recent years careful study has been given 
to insects as carriers of human disease, with the result that astounding 
facts have been disclosed. We know to-day that several of the serious 
and fatal diseases that afflict man, and several others to which domestic 
animals are subject, are carried or transmitted by insects ; and in some 
cases the disease is carried in no other way. The study of these facts 
and possibilities constitutes the new Medical Entomology. 



House Flies 

Beyond doubt the commonest and the worst offender is the house 
fly. Both observed facts and careful experiments have proved that 

this insect is instrumental in 
the spread of typhoid fever, 
tuberculosis, and certain intes- 
tinal diseases, and there is every 
probability that further study 
will reveal others. 

The habits of the fly in its 
choice of breeding places, its 
irrespressible tendency to enter 
our houses and walk over our 
food, and the structure of its 
body, especiafly its feet and its 
tongu e, f orm the chain of circum- 
stances by which the transfer of disease germs is brought about. The 
same fly that spent its larval life as a maggot in filth or infected excre- 

42 




Fig. 42. — The House Fly, Musca domes- 
tica Linn. Enlarged. Original. 



TRANSMISSION OF DISEASE 



43 



merit later comes through our opened doors or unscreened windows, 
its hairy feet loaded with dangerous germs, and alights on the food set 
on our dinner table. Or, coming from the street, where it has been 
feeding on the sputum of some unfortunate victim of tuberculosis. 
it brings in the deadly bacteria in the ridges and hollows of its tongue. 



Mosquitoes 

In a wholly different manner the mosquitoes of certain species have 
been proved to transmit malarial fever. Indeed it is known that this 
disease never is transmitted in 
any other way. Here, in contrast 
to the fly which simply carries 
germs mechanically on some part 
of its body, we have an insect 
that serves as an intermediary host 
to the organism, the latter going 
through a definite part of its life 
round within the body of the 
insect, the remainder within the 
body of man. The mosquito 
itself is infected by sucking the 
blood of a human being suffering 
from malaria. The organism that 
causes the disease, being thus 
transferred to the stomach of the insect, goes through certain changes, 
and eventually collects in large numbers in the salivary gland of the 
mosquito. If, now, this insect bites another person, the organisms are 
transferred to the latter, and shortly develop in the blood, giving 
rise to the characteristic chills and fever, recurring at regular intervals, 
according to the particular type of organism with which the mosquito 
has been infected. 

As a direct result of this knowledge it has been possible to bring 
about phenomenal results in fever-ridden districts, by careful screening, 
and by isolating fever patients so that mosquitoes could not get at 
them while they were suffering from the disease. In places where this 




Fig. 43. — A malarial mosquito, An- 
opheles maculipennis Say. Enlarged 
and natural size. Original. 



44 INSECTS AND DISEASE 

work has been carefully done the death rate from malaria has been re- 
duced to a small fraction of that formerly prevailing. 

Other Diseases Transmitted 

Yellow fever is transmitted solely by certain species of mosquitoes. 
In Montana and Idaho a disease known as spotted fever is carried 
by a tick. The terribly fatal bubonic plague is transmitted largely by 
fleas. A species of fly has been found to be the means of spread of the 
sleeping sickness that has been ravaging some sections of Africa. Yet 
this is only a part of the known list. 

Among domestic animals, a striking example is found in the disease 
known as Texas fever, which has caused tremendous losses among 
owners of cattle. The organism causing this disease is carried by a 
species of tick, and infection invariably takes place only through the 
bite of this tick. In Asia and Africa other serious or fatal diseases 
of domestic animals have been traced to insect carriers, and it is 
probable that similar discoveries will be made here. 



CPIAPTER X 



The Natural Enemies of Insects 



That insects have a host of natural enemies which constantly prey on 
them is as certain as the fact that insects exist at all. If it were not so, 
and if our pests reached the full limit of their powers of increase un- 
checked, there would shortly be no Uving plant left on the face of the 
earth, and no trace of animal life. Insects possess preeminently the 
ability to multipl}^ rapidly and to spread widely. Thus it has been 
computed that the progeny of one plant louse in a single season, if 
allowed to multiply at the maximum rate and if none suffered accidental 
death, would make a mass of matter equal in weight to that of the 
eartl] . 




Fig. 44. — Protective coloration. Butterflies 
among dead leaves. Original. 



Fig. 45. — Protective resem- 
blance. Moth on the trunk 
of a tree. Original. 



Birds and Other Animals 

Among the higher animals that destroy noxious insects birds are 
entitled undoubtedly to first rank. Few of us appreciate their services. 

45 



46 



NATURAL ENEMIES OF INSECTS 



Scores of species depend largely on insects for their food during a part 
of the 3^ear, if not throughout all of it. Among our best friends are 
the swallows, chickadees, cuckoos, the kingbird, catbird, robin, blue- 
bird, and the woodpeckers ; but this hst is merely suggestive. 

Birds are pecuHarly fitted for dealing with outbreaks of injurious 
insects. Possessed of the power of flight they can flock to places where 
insect pests that they enjoy are in abundance. At the same time 
they are not -bound to maintain a species at reasonable abundance 
in order to protect their source of food and keep it from disappearing 
entirely, as is the case with many insect parasites. 

Toads are entitled to prominent rank as destroyers of insects. The 
number of specimens consumed by them in a season is enormous. Other 
animals that live on insects to a considerable extent are skunks, moles, 
and field mice. 

Efficient enemies of aquatic insects, or of such as spend part of their 
life beneath the water, are various species of fishes. 



Predaceous and Parasitic Insects 

The greatest inroads in the ranks of injurious insects are made by 
other members of the same great class itself, by the predaceous and 
parasitic insects. 

In general, we speak of predaceous insects as those that attack 
and feed on other insects or animals of various species, but are not 
dependent on a single individual 
host for their existence. Thus 





Fig. 46. — A predaceous bug, Sinea 
diadema Fab. Original. 



Fig. 47. — Adult Braconid. 
An egg parasite. Enlarged 
and natural size. Original. 



PREDACEOUS AND PARASITIC INSECTS 



47 




the dragon fly, poised in air and 
waiting to pounce on some unwary 
gnat or fly, is predaceous. 

A parasitic insect, on the other 
hand, usually is highly specialized 
for existence on some particular species 
of host, and has reached such depend- 
ence on its host that if the latter 
dies before the parasite has completed 



Fig. 48. — Larva, showing 
exit holes of parasites. 
Original. 




Fig. 49. 



Eggs of a parasite on a cut- 
worm. Original. 

its life round, the parasite perishes. Many parasitic insects hve 
within the bodies of their hosts. A familiar example is found in the 
species that lays its eggs in the body of the tomato worm, the 
parasitic grubs finally gnawing their way to the surface, where they 
spin tiny, white cocoons on the body of their host. 

For most of us, the 
tremendous work of para- 
sitic and predaceous spe- 
cies in destroying insect 
pests passes unnoticed. 
It is brought to mind 
when we see or hear of 
a bad outbreak of some 
injurious insect, and later 
observe that the threaten- 
ing species has suddenly grown scarce — sometimes seemingly disap- 
peared from the face of the earth in the very localities where it 
had been abundant. If we were to follow up such cases carefully, 
we should find, as a rule, that as soon as the threatening species 




Fig. 50. 



Cocoons of parasites on 
Original. 



a larva. 



NATURAL ENEMIES OF INSECTS 




Fig. 51. — Prodaceons 
beetle, Calosoma. Orig- 
inal. 



began to grow excessively numerous, some 
one of its enemies, stimulated by the abun- 
dance of food, increased so rapidly that with 
the next generation or the next season the 
injurious species was well-nigh wiped out of 
existence. 

In truth, there is a sort of natural balance 
between the numbers of a given species of 
insect and those of its enemies. If the insect 
increases abnormally, the parasites are stimu- 
lated to heavy increase and the numbers of 
the host are rapidly diminished. If, on the 
other hand, the host decreases abnormally, the 
parasites perish from lack of food, and thus, 
freed temporarily from their attack, the host is enabled to increase 
once more. 

Consideration of the above law helps greatly to explain the fact 
that injurious species imported 
from a foreign country are so 
often intolerable pests. We 
have brought over the host with- 
out its enemies. Finding con- 
ditions here congenial, it multi- 
plies to excessive numbers, 
escaping the attack of the 
parasites that would have taken 
it in hand in its native home. 

Occasionally, it has been found 
possible to import artificially 
the parasites of an introduced 
pest, and to establish them 
successfully in this country. 

But the venture is tedious and 

J. 1 j.«2 ij. o Fig. 52. — Adult tachina fly; enlarged 

exceedmgly difncult. Some con- i ^ i • rp, i 

® -^ and natural size. The larvse are para- 

dition of weather or tempera- sites. Original. 




VALUE OF PARASITES 



49 






tiire is found unfavorable to an essential parasite ; or it is discovered 
that in its new home the parasite itself is attacked by some enemy 
from which it was free in its native land. Rarely, however, the 
experiment is successful; and the few instances that do work 
out satisfactorily abundantly repay for the labor and cost of all. 

The most extensive attempt at the introduction of parasitic and 
predaceous enemies from abroad for the control of a menacing pest is 
that now in progress, under 
the auspices of the Bureau of 
Entomology of the United 
States Department of Agricul- 
ture, in the fight against the 
gypsy moth. At least ten or 
twelve species must be col- 
lected, imported, and colo- 
nized successfully, in order to 
make this work a complete 
success ; but there is excellent 
prospect of ultimate accom- 
plishment ; and meanwhile, 
no other known measures 
will avail to limit the ravages 
of the pest. 

Among our valuable families of predaceous insects are the ground 
beetles, tiger beetles, and lady-bird beetles in the order Coleoptera; 
the assassin bugs and many aquatic forms in the order Hemiptera ; the 
dragon flies constituting the order Odonata ; and several families in 
the two- winged flies or Diptera. 

Two orders furnish the majority of our parasitic species, the Diptera 
and the Hymenoptera. The number of parasites within these orders 
is enormous. The principal families include the Tachina flies and the 
Sja-phus flies in the Diptera, and the Ichneumons, Braconids, and 
Chalcids in the Hymenoptera. 



Fig. 53. — Eggs of Chrysopa sp. Predaceous 
on plant lice. Enlarged. Original. 



50 



NATURAL ENEMIES OF INSECTS 



Fungous and Bacterial Diseases of Insects 

Fungous diseases of various kinds attack insects, and occasionally 
are responsible for their death in large numbers. A familiar example 

is seen at the close of every 
summer when many of our 
common house flies may be 
observed clinging to the ceil- 
ing, their abdomens distended 
and covered with a fine, pow- 
dery substance, while a ring 
of the same light powder sur- 
rounds the insect's body on 
the ceiling. 

Nearly every season speci- 
mens of the common tent 
caterpillar may be found hang- 
ing from a leaf or twig, the 
body misshapen and covered 
with a powdery growth. Mil- 
lions of brown tail caterpillars 
have been killed in the New 
England states in the last 
two years by a fungous 
disease. 

Attempts have been made 
to propagate these diseases 
artificially. A fair measure 
of success has sometimes at- 
tended these efforts, but the 
undertaking is diflficult, owing 
to the fact that certain con- 
appear to be essential to the 




Fig. 54. — Tent Caterpillar, Malacosoma 
americana Fab., killed by a fungous 
Original. 



disease. 



ditions of weather and moisture 
growth of the fungus. 

Caterpillars of some species are attacked also by bacteria of one or 



FUNGI AND BACTERIA 



51 



more species. Thus, the gypsy caterpillar occasionally dies off in 
large numbers from the effect of a disease due to a species of such 




Fig. 55. — Tent Caterpillars killed by a disease caused by a species of 
bacteria. Original. 

organism. The same or a similar disease attacks also the common 
tent caterpillar. 



PART II 

THE METHODS OF INSECT CONTROL 



CHAPTER XI 

Farm Practice in Relation to Insect Control 

To a considerable extent, — more than most of us suspect, — the 
depredations of injurious insects in our fields, orchards, and gardens may 
be reduced or controlled by the farm practice followed on a given place ; 
methods of tillage, crop rotations, and such matters as thoroughness 
in eradicating weeds. More emphasis should be laid on the fact that 
all farm matters, including the tax paid to insect pests, are largely 
interdependent ; that careful consideration given to the subject of prob- 
able insect attack when planning the procedure for a season or a 
series of seasons invariably will pay, and pay well. 

Crop Rotation 

Of these various matters, crop rotation is one of the most important. 
An example will illustrate the point. 

Many insects attack only one kind of plant ; say corn, for example, 
or strawberries, or onions. It may always be expected that a few such 
pests will find their way to a field that has been planted to some one of 
these crops. If not very abundant, they may, and probably will, 
pass entirely unnoticed, and the injury that they do will be so slight 
that it may properly be disregarded. 

Now, many or most of these insects spend the winter close by the 
scene of their summer's feeding ; in the ground, under rubbish, or 
elsewhere near at hand. Assume now that this field is planted to the 
same crop the succeeding season. It will start out with an abundance 
of insect enemies, especially adapted to that crop. Instead of an 
injury so small that it passes unnoticed we may have a disastrous attack. 

Again it is well to avoid planting in the same field in successive 
seasons crops that are closely related botanically. Some of our in- 

55 



56 FARM PRACTICE IN RELATION TO INSECTS 

jurious species attack not simply a single variety of plant, but any that 
comes within the same group, — for example, the striped cucumber 
beetle, which will feed impartially on melons, squashes, and cucumbers. 
It should be noted in passing that the plan that is good practice 
from the standpoint of avoiding insect attack is likewise the procedure 
recognized as wisest in maintaining the fertility of the soil and avoiding 
difficulties on other scores. 

Special Questions in Crop Rotations 

Even where unlike crops follow one another, it may be wise to alter 
the program because of threatening insects left by one crop for the next 
in the rotation. To illustrate: when a field has been in sod for a 
number of years, it is apt to harbor large numbers of wireworms. This 
is due to the fact that sod ground forms the natural breeding place of 
this insect. The presence of the wireworms might not be suspected, 
for the grass roots on which they feed are so numerous in the soil that 
no appreciable damage would be done to the sod. But, break up this 
sod, so that the grass roots are killed, and plant the field to potatoes. 
The wireworms will still be there in considerable numbers, since they 
normally spend two or three years in the larval stage. In the whole 
field there will be left for them to feed on nothing but the seed potatoes 
that the owner has placed in the ground. The result, if the field was 
well infested, will be a wholsesale destruction of the seed potatoes, 
and if the owner replants, a repetition of the same performance. Had 
the field been planted to clover, or some other similar crop in the 
family of legumes, there would have been little or no injury. 

Fall Plowing 

Deep fall plowing is of value in destroying many forms of soil- 
inhabiting insects — as well as helping to form a good seed bed and 
conserve soil moisture. It is the habit of several pests of field and 
garden crops to spend the winter as pupse or adults in the soil, some- 
times in little earthen cells. Deep plowing, late in the fall, dis- 
turbs these and throws many of them up to the surface of the ground. 



METHODS OF AVOIDING INJURY 57 

Removing Crop Remnants 

Other insects have the habit of hiding away under riil^bish or crop 
remnants, such as old potato vines or cabbage stumj^s. It pays to 
remove these as soon as the crop is off. The vegetable matter that they 
represent need not be lost if they are piled up in some odd corner and 
allowed to rot, so as to form humus which later may be used where 
desired. 

Destruction of Weeds 

Weeds are a genuine nuisance in the matter of encouraging noxious 
insects. It is common for a pest that feeds on a given variety of plant 
to make use of some closely related weed as its source of food until 
the cultivated crop is ready for attack. Some of our garden insects 
habitually thus eke out an existence in the early spring or late fall. 
In the case of other species it is the habit of the pest to go through 
its first generation of the season on a weed, a second generation coming 
forth in irresistible numbers as the time arrives for the cultivated 
crop to put in its appearance. 

Changing Time of Planting or Harvest 

Sometimes, as in the districts where wheat is attacked by Hessian 
fly, there is advantage to be gained by changing the time of planting. 
With the Hessian fly it is the aim of the grower to defer the planting 
of winter wheat for a few days beyond the customary time, so that the 
plants will not be large enough to serve the purposes of the fly when 
it comes out later to lay its eggs. On farms where this procedure is 
followed carefully and accurately, injury from this pest has largely 
been avoided. With other insects similar variations in farm practice 
have been worked out, wherever the habits of the pest make such a 
remedy possible. 

The Value of Poultry 

Countless numbers of insects are picked up by poultry when allowed 
to range over considerable area, as is especially the case where the 
colony system of housing is followed. Not only are troublesome 



58 FARM PRACTICE IN RELATION TO INSECTS 

pests thus destroyed, but the fowls themselves obtain a fair share of 
their living. 

In orchards several serious pests transform or hibernate in the soil, 
or hide away under weeds and in clumps of grass. An example is the 
plum curculio. Fowls will secure many of these. In the fields 
chickens will readily follow a plow, and will find many specimens 
that live in the soil, such as white grubs and wireworms. Bugs and 
caterpillars in grains and grasses are destroyed by the wholesale. 

Stimulating Plant Growth 

Where it is not possible to prevent the attack of an insect, it often 
is feasible so to stimulate plant growth that the injury will not prove 
disastrous. Or, to put it the other way, crops that are kept growing 
vigorously and are fed liberally are able to withstand insect attack, and 
to make a good yield in spite of it. Since we cannot always predict 
what pests will be prevalent in a given year, the wisdom and the ad- 
vantage of maintaining vigorous and healthy growth by all practicable 
means is apparent. The fact is again here emphasized that whatever 
constitutes good farm practice in one regard is apt to help out as well 
in others. 



CHAPTER XII 

Direct Control by Mechanical Means 

Some of the important measures for the control of injurious insects 
have been discussed in the preceding chapter. For the most part these 
may be classed as indirect methods, since they are intended largely 
to prevent attack or injury, and are a part of general farm practices 
adopted for various reasons besides those relating to insects. 

On the other hand there are measures that are intended directly to 
accomplish the destruction of a given pest or to prevent its attack, and 
are adopted primarily for that purpose. 

First among these are a number of simple methods that naturally 
suggest themselves in the case of the larger insects or those that con- 
gregate in limited areas ; such as hand picking or burning. Measures 
of this kind require no special apparatus, and often are effective. 
They may or may not presuppose accurate knowledge of the hfe history 
or habits of the insect dealt with ; but often such knowledge is essential 
if any real benefits are to be secured. 

Examples of this type are as follows : 

Hand Picking 

Hand picking, jarring, or brushing is a common practice in dealing 
with such insects as the tomato worm, squash bugs, and the like. It 
is worth knowing that a mass of such insects collected in a box or other 
receptacle can easily be killed by sprinkling them with kerosene. 

Burning 

Burning is often a prompt and effective remedy, especially with cater- 
pillars that tend to congregate in masses. A familiar example is seen 
in the common tent caterpillar. 

59 



60 CONTROL BY MECHANICAL MEANS 

A simple torch is conveniently made by tying a ball of rags tightly on 
the end of a pole, and soaking with kerosene, taking care not to use so 
much of the liquid that it runs down the pole. 

Destroying Egg Masses 

Destruction of egg masses is a valuable means of control where the 
egg clusters may be found readily. Egg masses may be crushed, or 
they may be painted with some penetrating oil, such as creosote. 

Banding 

In the control of some caterpillars, banding the trees is simple and 
effective ; but it is absolutely worthless against others. Its value 
depends on the characteristics of the insect to be dealt with. Thus, in 
the case of the cankerworm infesting apple trees, the adult female 
happens to be wingless, and must crawl up the trunk to lay her eggs. 
A sticky band will stop her from going up to the branches, and if the 
band is maintained until the young worms have hatched and they in 
turn are thus prevented from ascending the tree, no damage can be 
done to the foliage. But this band would be useless as a means of 
preventing a winged moth, such as the parent of the tent caterpillar, 
from gaining access to the tree. Bands are of value also where it is 
desired to prevent caterpillars that have hatched on adjacent land 
from migrating to trees that had been protected or cared for. 

An effective substance for banding is the material known as tree 
tanglefoot. It cannot be made at home, but must be bought ready 
prepared. Printer's ink is dangerous if applied directly to trees with 
tender bark. It may be smeared on a sheet of paper tied around the 
tree. 

Covering with Cloth or Screen 

Usually this plan is made use of to prevent injury to young plants, 
until they have grown large enough to withstand attack. Young 
melon or squash plants are thus protected from injury by the striped 
cucumber beetle. 

Where cloth is used, it should be of thin texture. Common cheese- 



BANDING — DESTROYING BORERS 61 

cloth serves the purpose very well. Handy covers are made by cutting 
a barrel hoop into two pieces, crossing these at a right angle, tacking 
the ends to a second hoop, and covering this frame with cloth. Such 
frames may be packed away for storage, one within another, taking 
up little room. 

Wire screening may be shaped into cones, which are used in the same 
way as the cloth-covered frames, and have a similar advantage of 
packing away in small space. If galvanized wire is used and properly 
stored when not needed, it will not rust for several years; but the first 
cost is rather heavy as compared with cheesecloth frames. 

Destroying Borers 

Cutting out borers with a knife is a remedy that seems drastic, but 
it may be the only means of putting a stop to an injury that would 
otherwise prove fatal. 

Frequently, it is possible to kill the borer by probing the burrow with 
a soft copper wire. If the end of the wire is nicked, so as to give it a 
few rough barbs, it will bring the borer or a piece of him out with it, 
and the operator may thus know whether he has succeeded in reaching 
the culprit. 

If cutting is necessary, a sharp knife should be used and the course of 
the burrow carefully followed. In this way no more real damage will 
be done to the tree than has already been done by the borer itself. It 
is well to paint the wound afterward with a mixture of lead and linseed 
oil — not with ready-mixed paint, which is apt to contain injurious 
oils added as driers. 

Removal of Dead or Dying Limbs 

There are certain species of small borers that attack especially trees 
that have been weakened. Once started, they continue to breed in 
such places, rapidly killing the tree and spreading from it to others in the 
neighborhood that do not happen to be growing as vigorously as might 
be. By prompt removal of the infested limbs or trees the pests may 
be eliminated and other trees near by saved from attack. This, in 
fact, is the only feasible means of control in the case of some insects, 



62 CONTROL BY MECHANICAL MEANS 

such as the shot-hole borer. The Hmbs or trees removed should be 
converted at once into cordwood and burned. Otherwise, little will 
be gained by their removal. 

Use of Traps 

The kinds of traps are legion, and range all the way from chips or 
stones placed in the garden for squash bugs to hide under to more or 
less ingenious devices for capturing roaches and flies. Many are 
efficient, though it often seems that new individuals make their appear- 
ance about as fast as the others are caught. At best the total numbers 
merely are reduced. 

A variation of traps is seen in the use of traj) crops. By this device 
some kind of plant is introduced that the pest is fond of, and after the 
insects have collected on these plants, they are destroyed by poisoning, 
burning, or by spraying them with some oil or corrosive, such as pure 
kerosene. In other cases the trap precedes the regular crop, and 
thus diverts attack from the more valuable plant. Thus, early kale is 
sown in fields that later are to be set out to cabbages, in order to attract 
the overwintering adults of the harlequin cabbage bug. 



CHAPTER XIII 

Insecticides — General Principles 

The use of chemicals for the destruction of insect pests had its origin 
with the advent of the Colorado potato beetle in our fields, about 1870. 

The beetle first came to notice as a pest of cultivated potatoes in the 
region between the Mississippi River and the Rocky Mountains. It 
spread steadily eastward, and in a few years reached the Atlantic 
coast. It was feared at the time that the growing of potatoes was 
doomed, and famine was freely predicted. 

Then came the suggestion that the potato tops be dusted or sprayed 
with Paris green, so as to poison the pest. The remedy was found to 
work. And thus was started the modern practice of using chemicals 
for the control of injurious insects. 

To-day a large proportion of our insect pests, more especially those 
infesting garden truck, fruits, and stored products, are controlled by 
some form of spraying, or by fumigation. 

The primary rule governing the application of chemicals for the con- 
trol of an injurious insect is to determine the feeding habits. If the 
pest is one that eats the foliage or tissues, in other words, if it has bit- 
ing mouth parts, it may usually be killed by applying to the plant some 
form of stomach poison, such as Paris green or lead arsenate. If, on 
the other hand, the pest sucks the plant juices instead of chewing or 
eating the tissues, in other words, if it has sucking mouth parts, it is 
utterly useless to apply any of the stomach poisons to the surface of 
the plant, for they will not be taken up by the insect. The sucking 
beak, thrust down through the surface of the leaf, misses the poison. 
In this class of insects, therefore, the chemicals applied must be such 
as will kill the insect by contact with it, usually by entering its breath- 
ing pores. 

63 



64 INSECTICIDES — GENERAL PRINCIPLES 

In other words, poison sprays for leaf-eating insects are applied to the 
"plant, to be eaten along with part of the plant. Contact sprays are 
applied to the insect, and only incidentally to the plant, since we could 
not hit the one without hitting the other. With these, the great aim 
is to apply the material so thoroughly that it will certainly come into 
contact with all the insects concerned, 

A third method of using chemicals is to take advantage of the suf- 
focating qualities of certain gases. Such materials are known as fumi- 
gants. They are of great value in fighting pests living in stored prod- 
ucts, such as the grain weevils. It is necessary, in using fumigants, 
that the materials treated shall be in a closed receptacle. 

An anomalous material, applied frequently in the open air but kill- 
ing the insect by the volatile oil that it gives off, is the so-called Per- 
sian insect powder. 

Examples of insects that have biting mouth parts and are killed by 
poison sprays are the grasshoppers, roaches, beetles, and practically all 
caterpillars. 

Examples of insects that have sucking mouth parts, and cannot be 
killed by poisons, but must be fought with contact sprays or by some 
other means, are the thrips, fleas, and the true '' bugs " — such as the 
squash bug, plant lice, scale insects, and leaf hoppers. 



CHAPTER XIV 

Poison Insecticides — For Biting Insects 

Paris Green 

Paris green 5 ounces 

Lump lime 1 pound 

Water 50 gallons 

For small quantities use : 

Paris green 1 heaping teaspoonful 

Lump lime 2 or 3 ounces 

Water 3 gallons 

Paris green is a bright green, heavy, finely divided powder, and is 
one of the compounds of arsenic. It may be applied dry, but is much 
better used in water or other liquid as a spray. It is a violent poison. 
The present standard calls for at least 50 per cent arsenious oxid, and 
not over 3^ per cent soluble arsenic. 

If appHed dry, mix with three or four times the same weight of flour 
or fine, air-slaked lime, preferably the latter. Dust lightly on the 
plants. Be careful not to put on too much, or there will be danger of 
burning the foliage because of the " free " or soluble arsenic apt to be 
found in the material. A good way is to mix the poison and the lime 
together, thoroughly, place in a muslin bag and shake gently over the 
plants. If this is done when the dew is on, or just after a shower, the 
material will stick better to the foliage. 

If to be used as a spray, Paris green may be mixed with water or with 
Bordeaux mixture. In either case, the amount to use is from 4 to 5 
ounces of the Paris green to 50 gallons of the liquid. If water 
is used, add about 1 pound of fresh lump lime to each 50 gal- 
lons of water. This is done to neutralize any soluble arsenic present 
and thus avoid injuring the foliage. 
F 65 



66 POISONS — FOB BITING INSECTS 

Resin soap is sometimes added to a solution of Paris green and water, 
in order to make the material stick to smooth leaves. It may be 
bought in stores, and should be used at the rate of 3 pounds to 50 
gallons. 

Resin-lime mixture, especially adapted for the purpose of a " sticker," 
is made by heating in an iron kettle 1 gallon of water, 1 pint of fish oil 
or other animal oil, and 5 pounds of resin. Then add lye solution, 
prepared by dissolving one can of lye according to the directions on 
the can. After thorough stirring, add hot water to make 5 gallons, and 
boil two hours, adding water to make up that lost by boiling. The re- 
sulting liquid is light brown and clear and will unite smoothly with 
cold water. For use take 3 gallons to 50 gallons of water, then add 3 
gallons of thick whitewash, and finally add the Paris green. 

Advantages of Paris green are its cheapness, its quick action in kill- 
ing insects, and the fact that it may readily be obtained in most stores. 
Disadvantages are its liability to adulteration, the fact that it settles 
quickly in the spray barrel, that it sometimes burns the foliage, and 
that it is rather easily washed off by rains. The last-named fact is an 
advantage, rather than a disadvantage, if it is desired to spray plants 
that will soon be ready for use, and will therefore need to be washed 
clean. 

Arsenate of Lead 

Arsenate of lead (paste) . . . . . 3 to 10 pounds 

Water 50 gallons 

or 

Arsenate of lead (powder) . . . . 1 to 4 pounds 

Water 50 gallons 

For small quantities use: 

Arsenate of lead (paste) 1 tablespoonful 

Water 1 gallon 

Arsenate of lead is obtainable in two forms : a thick, light-colored 
paste, or a white powder. The former is more commonly the manner 
in which it is put up. The two do not differ chemically. Arsenate of 



ARSENATE OF LEAD 67 

lead is a compound of arsenic, but is a less violent poison than Paris 
green. The standard requirements for the paste call for at least \2\ 
per cent arsenic oxid, not over f per cent soluble arsenic, and not 
over 50 per cent water. 

To apply as a spray, the paste may be mixed with water, with Bor- 
deaux mixture, or with lime-sulphur solution. In either case the 
strength to employ is from 3 to 10 pounds of the paste in 50 
gallons of water, or of Bordeaux mixture, or of lime-sulphur solution. 

If the dry lead arsenate is used in making up a spray, it is advan- 
tageous to employ the finely powdered form made by the " electro " 
process. The proportions will be from 1 to 4 pounds of the powder to 
50 gallons. 

Either the paste or the powder should first be mixed with a little 
water, so as to get it into a thin paste. It is entirely unnecessary to 
add lime. 

Owing to the fact that arsenate of lead is not as violent a poison as 
Paris green, it is necessary to use heavier doses for larger or resistant 
insects, as indicated in the formula given above. 

Powdered arsenate of lead, apphed dry, is developing a special field 
of usefulness and promises to become a valuable form of insecticide 
application. Paris green has been used in this way for many years, 
especially on some truck and field crops in the South ; but it is rather 
likely to burn the foliage and is easily washed off by rains. Powdered 
lead arsenate, especially the amorphous form made by the so-called 
'' electro " process, rarely will burn the plants, and if applied after a 
shower or when the dew is on the leaves, it sticks tightly. 

On most truck crops or field crops it has important advantages over 
liquid applications. The apparatus for applying it is light and inex- 
pensive ; large areas can be covered easily and rapidly ; the need of 
drawing a heavy cart through the field is obviated ; and if a good pow- 
der gun is used, the material can be forced in large quantities into the 
places where it will do the most good. It is not suitable for orchard 
work in general, or for work of such character as vineyard spraying. 

Advantages of lead arsenate are the facts that it will not usually 
burn foliage, that it stays in suspension in the spray mixture fairly 



68 POISONS — FOR BITING INSECTS 

well if moderately agitated, and that it is not easily washed off the leaf 
surface. Disadvantages are its larger cost and the fact that it does not 
so quickly kill insects as does Paris green. 

Hellebore 

Hellebore 1 ounce 

Water 1 gallon 

or 

Hellebore 1 part 

Flour 3 parts 

Hellebore is a white powder, consisting of the finely ground roots of 
the plant known as white hellebore {veratrum album). It is of little 
value unless it is fresh, or has been kept in a tightly closed vessel. It 
is poisonous to the larger animals when taken in sufficient quantity. 

It may be used dry or as a spray. If it is to be used dry, mix it with 
flour at the rate of one pound of the powder to three pounds of flour, 
and let the material stand over night in a closed vessel. It may then 
be dusted on the plants in any convenient manner. There is no dan- 
ger of burning the foliage. If to be used as a spray, steep one ounce 
of the powder in one gallon of water. 

Hellebore has the advantage that it loses its poisonous properties 
after exposure to the air for three or four days, and therefore may be 
applied with safety to ripening fruits ; for example, currants that are 
about ready to use. 

Poison Bran Mash 

Bran 25 pounds 

Paris green - h pound 

Cheap molasses . . . . .1 quart 
Water as needed to moisten. 

For small quantities use : 

Bran 1 quart 

Paris green 1 teaspoonful 

Cheap molasses 1 tablespoonful 

Water as needed to moisten. 



POISON BRAN MASH 69 

Poison bran mash is a mixture of Paris green, bran, and sweetened 
water, and is used particularly for cutworms. 

Mix, dry, ^ pound of Paris green and 25 pounds of bran. Mid- 
dlings or meal may be used instead of bran, but the latter is to be pre- 
ferred. Prepare some sweetened water, by mixing 1 quart of cheap 
molasses and 2 gallons of water. Moisten the poisoned bran with 
this sweetened water, using additional water if necessary so as to get the 
bran thoroughly moist throughout, but not so wet as to be sloppy. 
The poison mash thus obtained is scattered on the surface of the ground. 



CHAPTER XV 

Contact Insecticides — For Sucking Insects 

Lime-sulphur Solution 

Lime sulphur is a chemical combination of lime and sulphur, and 
kills insects by its caustic properties. At the same time it has con- 
siderable value as a fungicide, for the control of such plant diseases as 
apple scab. 

The material is used both as a winter spray, when the trees are dor- 
mant, and as a summer spray, the latter for fungus diseases ; but the 
solution for summer use is much weaker. Material of the proper 
strength for winter use must never be sprayed on trees in leaf as it 
will burn the foliage. 

The best time to apply the winter strength of lime-sulphur solution 
is in the early spring, just before the buds swell. For San Jose scale 
and for leaf blister mite, two insects for which this material is especially 
useful, this is the most effective season. It may be applied in the fall, 
however, at any time after the leaves drop. 

There are three ways of preparing the winter wash of lime sulphur : 
by diluting the commercial concentrated solution now on sale in stores 
to the required strength; by making a concentrated solution at home, 
and properly diluting when needed ; and by making at home a solution 
which when finished is ready at once for use. These will be described 
in order. 

Commercial Lime Sulphur 

Commercial concentrated lime sulphur is a clear, reddish brown liq- 
uid. It has been placed on the market by a number of manufacturers, 
and is obtainable practically everywhere. 

For use, this material simply is diluted with water. The amount of 
water to be added always is indicated on the container in which the 
liquid comes. But if it is desired to test the strength, this can be done 

70 



CONCENTRATED LIME SULPHUR 71 

with a hydrometer, which will indicate the specific gravity. Procure 
a hydrometer marked according to the Baiime scale, and dilute accord- 
ing to the table given below in the directions for diluting home-made 
concentrated lime sulphur, remembering that this is for use on dormant 
trees only. 

Since this spray material is quite clear, it shows but little on the 
trees. Some operators, therefore, are following the practice of adding 
lime to the material after it is diluted ready for the spray tank, in order 
to make the spray show up. Probably there is no advantage gained 
in efficiency, but one can tell whether the tree is thoroughly coated. 
The lime must be added after the material is diluted. Either lump 
lime or air-slaked lime, at the rate of 6 or 8 pounds to 50 gallons 
of diluted spray, may be employed. It will require about ten minutes 
for the lump lime to slake. Care should be taken to arrange matters 
so that the addition of lime will take place before the final straining. 

Home-made Concentrated Lime Sulphur 

Lump lime 50 pounds 

Sulphur 100 pounds 

Water (hot) 70 gallons 

Dilute as directed. 

If suitable appliances are at hand, it is feasible to make up con- 
centrated lime sulphur at home, which can be diluted for use when 
needed. It is absolutely necessary, however, to keep the finished prod- 
uct sealed up away from contact with air, and it is essential that the 
purity of the materials used be guaranteed. In most cases, it will be 
found that the commercial concentrate is safer. 

To prepare the concentrate, have ready two boilers, one of which 
must be of 100 gallons capacity and is used for boiling the materials, 
while the other serves to keep ready a supply of boiling water to re- 
plenish the material as it boils down. It is advisable to have a measur- 
ing stick, so that the amount of Uquid may be ascertained from time to 
time, and hot water added when needed. It is much better if the cook- 
ing can be done by steam, in a closed vessel ; but direct fire will do. 



72 INSECTICIDES FOR SUCKING INSECTS 

Place in the main boiler 50 pounds of stone lime. Add 20 gallons 
of hot water. While the lime is slaking add 100 pounds of sulphur. 
Stir the mixture thoroughly and constantly, adding more water from 
time to time. When the lime is slaked, add hot water to make 70 
gallons. Boil this slowly for one half to three quarters of an hour, or 
until all of the sulphur and lime are dissolved. Dip out small quanti- 
ties and test from time to time. As the material boils away, add hot 
water to keep the volume up to 70 gallons. When the materials are 
all dissolved, pour out into barrels, straining carefully, and allow to 
cool. At once close up as nearly air tight as possible. 

To dilute for use as a winter spray, take 1 gallon of the concentrate 
to 5 gallons of water. Or, better, have a Baume hydrometer, test 
the specific gravity of the concentrate, and dilute with water according 
to the following table: 



Reading on Hydrometer in Degrees 


Number 


ofG 


ALLONS OF Water to 


Baume 


One Gallon < 


3P THE Concentrate 


35 






9 


34 






8f 


33 






8i 


32 






8 


31 






7^ 


30 






7i 


29 






6f 


28 






6^ 


27 






6 


26 






51 


25 






5i 


24 






5 


23 






^ 


22 






4i 


21 






3f 


20 






31 


19 






3i 


18 






3 


17 






2f 


16 






21 


15 






21 


14 






2 



The above dilutions are for winter strength (the material commonly 
used for San Jose scale and leaf blister mite). 



KEROSENE EMULSION 73 

Regular Home-made Lime-sulphur Wash 

Lump lime 20 pounds 

Sulphur 15 pounds 

Water 50 gallons 

The material here described, when finished, is of the proper strength 
for use as a winter spray, without further dilution. It contains much 
sediment, and must always be carefully strained before use, or it will 
clog the nozzles intolerably. It is the standard formula with many 
fruit growers, and is considered to be especially effective against San 
Jose scale. 

It is easier to prepare it if facilities are at hand for cooking by steam ; 
but the use of large iron kettles is permissible, provided the material 
is stirred constantly and vigorously during the entire time it is cooking. 
Place in the boiler 20 pounds of stone lime. Add a few gallons of 
hot water to start the lime to slaking, and then gradually add 15 pounds 
of flowers of sulphur, stirring constantly. Add 12 gallons of hot water, 
and boil hard for an hour. Dilute with more hot water until there are 
50 gallons of the mixture. Strain carefully, using preferably a brass 
wire strainer with twenty meshes to the inch. Apply the solution 
while still hot. 

Kerosene Emulsion 

Hard soap \ pound 

Hot water (soft) 1 gallon 

Kerosene (coal oil) 2 gallons 

Dilute as directed. 

Kerosene emulsion is a valuable insecticide, especially for destroying 
hibernating insects in rubbish, and, when further diluted, for killing 
plant lice, and other similar insects. The ingredients are kerosene 
(coal oil), soap, and water. By means of the soap the oil is broken up 
into extremely fine particles, or, in other words, is '' emulsified," so 
that in effect it may be applied greatly diluted, and its killing power on 
insects secured without injuring plant tissues. 

To prepare, shave up \ pound of laundry soap in 1 gallon of soft 



74 INSECTICIDES FOR SUCKING INSECTS 

water. Have the water boiling hot. As soon as the soap is all dis- 
solved, remove the solution from the fire and add 2 gallons of kero- 
sene. At once agitate the material violently. This is best accom- 
plished by the use of a bucket pump, turning the nozzle back into the 
bucket, so that the material is constantly passed through the pump. 
In a few minutes a smooth, creamy emulsion is formed, without any 
free oil. This will become thicker as it cools, but if it is properly made, 
no oil will separate out. This is the stock material, and will keep well, 
if sealed from air. 

For use on trees or shrubs that are dormant it is customary to dilute 
the stock emulsion with 5 to 7 parts of water. On trees or plants in 
leaf dilute with 10 to 15 parts of water, depending on the type of in- 
sect and the kind of foliage. Soft-bodied insects such as plant Uce are 
easily killed by a dilution containing only 5 or 6 per cent of oil. 

To get exact dilutions use the following table : 
For 4% strength add 15f gallons of water to 1 gallon of stock solution- 
For 5% strength add 12^ gallons of water to 1 gallon of stock solution. 
For 7% strength add 8| gallons of water to 1 gallon of stock solution. 
For 10% strength add 5f gallons of water to 1 gallon of stock solution. 
For 12% strength add 4^ gallons of water to 1 gallon of stock solution. 
For 15% strength add 3§ gallons of water to 1 gallon of stock solution. 
For 18% strength add 2f gallons of water to 1 gallon of stock solution. 
For 20% strength add 2^ gallons of water to 1 gallon of stock solution. 
For 25% strength add If gallons of water to 1 gallon of stock solution. 

Oil sprays are best applied on a sunny day when the wind is blowing, 
since surplus oil will then evaporate more quickly and there will be less 
danger of injuring the plant. 

Crude oils are emulsified in the same way as kerosene. For certain 
insects, as indicated later, this spray is effective and desirable. 

Linseed Oil Emulsion 

Hard soap 1 pound 

Hot water (soft) 1 gallon 

Linseed oil (raw) 2 gallons 

Dilute as directed. 



TOBACCO EXTRACT 75 

The manner of making linseed oil emulsion is similar to that of 
making kerosene emulsion. The material has a special use in fight- 
ing oyster shell scale. 

To make the stock emulsion take 1 pound of soap, shave up fine, 
and dissolve in 1 gallon of boiling soft water. When the soap is 
all dissolved, remove the solution from the fire and add at once 2 
gallons of raw linseed oil. Churn the mixture violently by pumping 
it back on itself with a bucket pump. After a few minutes, a yellowish, 
smooth, creamy emulsion will be formed. No oil should separate out, 
if the stock is properly prepared. 

To prepare for use, take 1 gallon of the stock and dilute with 
9 gallons of soft water. This is for use on trees not yet in leaf. 
For oyster shell scale it is best applied just before the buds swell in the 
spring. 

Commercial Tobacco Extract 

Highly concentrated extracts of tobacco are now on the market, 
and constitute a valuable class of contact insecticides. They are 
dark-colored liquids, and are prepared for use by diluting with water, 
according to the degree of concentration of the brand purchased and 
the kind of insect concerned. It is advantageous to add soap to the 
solution, in order to make it spread more readily and prevent it from 
collecting in globules. Use 1 pound of soap to 50 gallons of the 
diluted spray. 

Rather strong dilutions of commercial tobacco extract have been 
found of possible value as winter sprays to kill the overwintering eggs 
of certain plant lice on the bark or twigs of dormant trees. 

Weaker dilutions are standard remedies for fighting various soft- 
bodied sucking insects, such as plant lice, thrips, and the hke. These 
dilutions are applied with perfect safety to trees in leaf. 

Similar dilutions are used as dips for sheep or other domestic ani- 
mals, to kill mites and lice. 

^' Black Leaf 40," containing 40 per cent nicotine sulphate, is used 
for winter spraying, as noted above, at dilutions ranging from 1 part 
to 300 of water down to 1 part to 600. For use in summer the dilu- 



76 INSECTICIDES FOR SUCKING INSECTS 

tions range from 1 part to 500 in the case of resistant insects down 
to 1 part to 1000 in the case of tender plant Hce. The dilutions for 
killing lice and mites on animals are similar to the last named. The 
strength of 1 to 500 should be used only as a wash and not as a dip, 
when treating pests on animals. 

" Sulphate of Nicotine " is a preparation of similar strength, and 
the dilutions are the same. 

Liquid " Nico-Fume " contains 40 per cent free nicotine, but the 
dilutions and manner of use are similar to the above. 

" Black Leaf Extract " contains a much lower percentage of nico- 
tine, and less water is added to it than to the others named. 

Home-made Tobacco Extract 

If tobacco stems or tobacco dust are available, an extract may be 
made at home. To prepare, pack the stems in a pail or kettle and 
cover with water. Allow to stand over night. Or, boil 1 pound of 
dust or stems in 1 gallon of water. An hour's boiling is sufficient. 
Dilute the extract with 1 to 2 parts of water. This material 
may safely be applied to plants in leaf and is effective against plant 
lice. Add soap at the rate of 1 pound to 50 gallons of spray. It is 
not advisable to employ this as a winter spray to kill the eggs of plant 
lice because the percentage of nicotine present may not be sufficient. 

Insect Powder 

Insect powder 1 ounce 

Water 2 gallons 

This is the material variously known as pyrethrum, buhach, or 
Persian insect powder. It consists of the finely ground flower buds 
of a plant. The active principle is volatile ; hence the material rapidly 
loses its strength on exposure to air. It must be fresh, or must have 
been kept in a closed receptacle, to be effective. 

Commonly it is used dry. Small powder guns are obtainable for 
applying it. 

To use it as a spray, mix 1 ounce in 2 gallons of water. If it is 



SOAP SOLUTION 77 

desired to use it in larger quantities, a convenient method is to steep 
1 pound in 1 gallon of alcohol, then dilute with 40 gallons of water. 
This material is not poisonous to man or the higher animals. 

Soap Solution 

Hard soap 1 pound 

Water 5 gallons 

A simple solution of soap and water is effective against plant lice 
and similar sucking insects, and is especially useful for treating insects 
infesting house plants, where it is not desirable to use other and less 
pleasant materials. 

Ordinary laundry soap may be used. Dissolve 1 pound of soap 
in 5 gallons of water. This solution will not injure plants in leaf. 

Whale-oil soap may be used instead of laundry soap. The potash 
soap is best. It should contain not over 30 per cent water. One 
pound in 4 or 5 gallons of water is the proper strength for plants 
in leaf. 

A solution of whale-oil soap and water is sometimes used for San 
Jose scale, applying it to trees in winter, while they are dormant. 
For such use, take 2 pounds of the soap to 1 gallon of hot water. 
This material is not as effective against scale as lime-sulphur solution, 
and the cost is greater. 

Carbolic Acid Emulsion 

Hard soap 1 pound 

Hot water (soft) | gallon 

Carbohc acid (crude) 1 pint 

Dilute as directed. 

This is one of the remedies occasionally recommended for killing 
root maggots. These maggots are not properly sucking insects, but 
because of the conditions under which they are found, the use of a 
contact insecticide is sometimes recommended. 



78 INSECTICIDES FOR SUCKING INSECTS 

Carbolic acid emulsion is prepared in the same manner as kerosene 
emulsion. Dissolve 1 pound of hard soap in ^ gallon of boiling 
water. Then add 1 pint of crude carbolic acid, and at once churn the 
mixture by pumping it back on itself with a bucket pump until a 
smooth emulsion is formed. 

This is the stock material. To prepare for use dilute at the rate of 
1 part of the stock emulsion to 50 parts of water. 



CHAPTER XVI 

Repellents 

Occasionally some chemical is found to be of service in driving away 
insects at work on a plant. Many remedies of this nature are pro- 
posed from time to time, but in most cases further tests prove that 
they are without real value. 

Dry-slaked lime is of service in driving away certain pests, such as 
the striped cucumber beetle. To prepare, place fresh lump lime in a 
metal vessel and add a small amount of hot water. The lime will 
slake to an extremely fine powder. This is dusted on the insects. 
If desired, flowers of sulphur may be added to the slaked lime. 

Tobacco dust is reasonably effective as a repellent. It must be 
fresh, and is dusted directly on the insects; or when used as a pre- 
ventive of attack by root maggots, the dust is heaped up around 
the stem of each plant. 

Naphthaline, or " moth balls," is of moderate value as a repellent 
for such insects as the common clothes moths, or for some of the 
pests that infest dried animal products. This material is not, how- 
ever, a complete protection. It should be noted, further, that if 
moths have already laid their eggs on garments, and the latter are 
afterwards packed away with naphthaline, no benefit whatever will 
be secured. The substance is a repellent solely for the adult moth, 
and not for the larva, which does the real damage. 

Protective Wash for Trunks of Trees 
Dissolve 2 quarts of strong soft soap in a bucket of water. One 
pound of hard soap may be used instead of the soft soap. Add | 
pint of crude carbolic acid and 2 ounces of Paris green. Then add 
lime, or clay, or both, so as to make a thick paste. 

Paint this on the trunks or limbs of trees as a deterrent for borers. 
It will not give entire protection, but will help to ward off attack. 

79 



CHAPTER XVII 

FUMIGANTS 

In general, fumigation is available for killing insects only when the 
plants or substances treated are in an inclosed space. This is for the 
reason that the various gases which are the active killing agents in 
any fumigation must be confined to be effective. 

Fumigation is commonly used in greenhouses, in the treatment of 
pests infesting stored or manufactured products, and in the treatment 
of nursery stock suspected of infestation with San Jose scale. The 
methods employed and the strengths of material used vary with these 
different classes of work. The general manner of using the chemicals, 
and the principles involved, are similar. 

Carbon Bisulphide 
Carbon bisulphide . . 1 pound to each 100 cubic feet 

This is the material ordinarily used for killing pests of stored and 
manufactured products, except in grain elevators where the risk of 
accidental fire is considered too great. It is a clear, heavy liquid, 
with a strong and disagreeable odor. On exposure to air, it evapo- 
rates rapidly, giving off a gas that is heavier than air, and therefore 
diffuses down rather than up. 

Allow 1 pound of carbon bisulphide for each 100 cubic feet of 
space in the fumigating chamber. Or, if grain is being fumigated, 
allow 1 pound of the liquid to each 100 bushels of grain. In small 
quantities this is about equivalent to 2 drams to the bushel. 

This is the dosage at ordinary temperatures of 60° to 70° Fahren- 
heit. At much lower temperatures a heavier dose will be required, 

80 



CARBON TETRACHLORIDE 81 

and at higher temperatures one half to three fourths of the above 
will suffice. 

Place the material to be treated in a box, barrel, or bin that can 
be made at least fairly air tight. Pour out the carbon bisulphide in 
one or more shallow dishes, and place on top of the materials. Put 
on the cover at once, and leave for twenty-four hours. Blankets or 
canvas thrown over the top of the box will assist in retaining the 
fumes. Do not allow any fire, or even a lighted cigar, anywhere near 
at the time of fumigating or for a 'period after, until the fumes have 
disappeared. 

Use reasonable care not to breathe the fumes too much or too long 
at a time, as they will be apt to cause headache or illness. No in- 
convenience should be experienced if ordinary care is exercised. 

If large amounts of grain are being fumigated, it is best to intro- 
duce some of the liquid to the middle layer of the heap instead of 
putting all on top. To do this, fit a round stick loosely in a section of 
small iron pipe. Leaving the stick in the pipe, shove it down through 
the grain. Then withdraw the stick, and pour the desired amount 
of the carbon bisulphide down the pipe. The stick merely serves to 
keep the grain from filling the pipe when it is shoved down into the 
heap. After being fumigated, the grain should be shoveled over, so 
as to help remove the gas remaining in it. 

Carbon Tetrachloride 
Carbon tetrachloride . . 2 pounds to each 100 cubic feet 

A substitute for carbon bisulphide is found in carbon tetrachloride. 
It has the advantage of being nonexplosive, and therefore may be 
preferred in fumigating bins in a house or barn, or wherever there is 
possible danger of fire. It is not as active as carbon bisulphide, and 
will not kill insects as readily. 

The proper strength to use is 2 pounds of carbon tetrachloride for 
each 100 cubic feet of space or each 100 bushels of grain. In small 
quantities use 4 drams to each cubic foot or each bushel of grain. 



S2 FUMIGANTS 



Sulphur 

Under some conditions a satisfactory fumigation may be had by 
burning sulphur at the rate of 2 pounds to 1000 cubic feet. It should 
be noted that the fumes are harmful to vegetation, that they will 
bleach fabrics, and that they will destroy the germinating power of 
seeds. As a means of killing bedbugs in empty rooms the treatment 
is excellent. 

Place the sulphur in a fire-proof vessel, and this in turn within a 
larger vessel, and ignite. Keep the place closed for 24 hours. 

Hydrocyanic Acid Gas 

The most active fumigating agent in use is hydrocyanic acid gas, 
made by combining water, sulphuric acid, and potassium cyanide. 
This gas is a deadly poison to man as well as insects, and its use should 
not be attempted unless careful precautions are taken, or the opera- 
tor has had experience. It should never be used for fumigating any 
part of an inhabited house, unless the entire premises can be vacated 
for two or three days until the structure is thoroughy aired. 

For fumigating nursery stock, the materials are used in the propor- 
tion of 1 ounce of 98 per cent potassium cyanide, 2 ounces of com- 
mercial sulphuric acid, and 4 ounces of water for each 100 cubic 
feet of space in the fumigating chamber. The chamber is kept closed 
for 40 minutes. To generate the gas, have ready an earthen crock 
of generous size. Pour the necessary amount of water into the crock, 
and slowly add the sulphuric acid, stirring the mixture. Never re- 
verse this order and pour the water into the acid. Considerable heat 
will be generated. Place the proper amount of potassium cyanide in 
a paper bag, or tie up loosely in paper, drop the package into the 
crock, and at once leave the room, closing it up air tight. A con- 
venient w^ay of adding the cyanide is to suspend the bag over the 
crock with a string, the other end of which is led through a small 
hole in the fumigating chamber, so that the operator can retire first 
and seal the door, and then lower the bag of cyanide into the acid. 



HYDROCYANIC ACID GAS 83 

In fumigating a house, or a part of a house, the materials are com- 
bined in the same manner as above, but the proportions to use are 
1 ounce of cyanide, 1 ounce of sulphuric acid, and 3 ounces of 
water to each 100 cubic feet. All cracks should be sealed or stopped 
up. Gummed paper is useful for this purpose. After the fumigation 
is complete, the house must be aired out by opening the windows 
from the outside. Fumigation of dwellings ought never to be 
attempted unless one thoroughly understands the process and the 
necessary precautions. 

In greenhouses the amount of material to use cannot definitely be 
specified in advance, and ought always to be ascertained by careful 
preliminary trial. Different plants will withstand varying amounts 
of the fumigant, and much depends on the tightness of the house. 

It is best to begin with a dose oi Ito ^ ounce of cyanide to the thou- 
sand cubic feet, continuing the treatment for about 2 hours, at once 
airing the house and observing results. If the insects are not all 
killed, and the plants are uninjured, the dose may be made a little 
heavier. 

Fumigation in greenhouses must aways be done at night, and the 
leaf surfaces must be dry. The house may be aired out late the same 
night or early the next morning, before the sun is hot. 

Greenhouse fumigation is of special value against mealy bugs, 
white fly, and violet aphis, because other possible treatments are in- 
jurious to the plants or ineffective. It is not successful against scale 
insects or red spider. 

When greenhouses are cleared of plants between crops, they should 
be thoroughly fumigated, using the cyanide at the rate of 5 to 8 ounces 
to the thousand cubic feet and continuing the treatment over night. 
Valuable protection will thus be secured for the succeeding crop. 

Fumigation with Tobacco 

For the control of most plant lice in greenhouses, fumigation with 
tobacco is a common method. This cannot be employed in houses 
containing violets, since the fumes will spot the leaves. 



84 FUMIGANTS 

The usual method is to burn stems or dust, or to vaporize liquid 
extracts of tobacco, or to make use of a specially prepared punk now 
on sale in stores. The last is usually the most satisfactory method. 

It is desirable in tobacco fumigation to generate the smudge near 
the level of the floor, because it rises rather rapidly, and if generated 
at the height of the benches, much of the strength of the fumigant will 
be concentrated near the roof. 



CHAPTER XVIII 

Fungicides combined with Poisons 

Materials that are used for the control of plant diseases, such as 
scab, mildew, and the like, are called fungicides, as contrasted with 
materials used for the destruction of insects, called insecticides. Fungi- 
cides are not intended for the control of insect pests, and for the most 
part have no value whatever in insect warfare. 

However, one of the materials commonly used for plant diseases, 
Bordeaux mixture, has also some effect in driving away certain insects 
from plants, or at least is distasteful to them. A second fungicide, 
lime sulphur, as prepared for use in summer on trees in leaf, also has 
some value as a mild contact insecticide, of considerable efficiency 
against such soft-bodied sucking insects as plant lice. 

In addition, it is common practice to use either of these materials 
with a poison, such as arsenate of lead, added to it, as a combined 
insecticide and fungicide, instead of applying the two sprays sepa- 
rately. Directions for their preparation and use, therefore, seem 
proper at this point. 

Bordeaux Mixture 

Copper sulphate 4 pounds 

Lump lime 4 pounds 

Water 50 gallons 

Bordeaux mixture is a combination of copper sulphate, often known 
as '' blue \dtriol " or " bluestone," with lime and water. It may be 
bought in paste form, ready to dilute with water and apply; or it 
may easily be made at home. 

To make Bordeaux mixture, place 25 gallons of water in a barrel, 
and suspend in it, just below the surface, a cloth bag containing 4 

85 



86 FUNGICIDES COMBINED WITH POISONS 

pounds of copper sulphate. Allow the copper sulphate completely to 
dissolve. If it is desired to hurry this part of the process, the sul- 
phate may be dissolved in hot water, using about 2 gallons and 
stirring well, and this may then be poured into the barrel and the 
latter filled up to 25 gallons. In another barrel slake 4 pounds of 
lump hme, adding more water and stirring well as the lime dissolves, 
until there are 25 gallons in the barrel. Then combine the sulphate 
solution and the limewater by dipping alternately from each into the 
spray tank. Or, the two may be poured slowly at the same time into 
the spray tank. It is essential that the mixture be thoroughly strained 
as it goes into the sprayer. 

On some plants the above formula for Bordeaux mixture is too 
strong, and should be altered to the following: copper sulphate, 2 
pounds; lump lime, 2 pounds; water, 50 gallons. The method of mak- 
ing is the same. 

Bordeaux mixture must be used as soon as prepared. If allowed to 
stand, it changes in composition. More lime may be added, and the 
material thus made use of, but this procedure is not recommended. 

Where this material is used in large amounts it is convenient to 
prepare separate stocks of copper sulphate solution and lime " putty." 
Kept separate, they will not deteriorate. Dissolve the copper sulphate 
in water at the rate of 1 pound of the sulphate to 1 gallon of 
water. One gallon of this concentrated solution will then equal 1 
pound of the sulphate. To prepare lime putty, place a known weight 
of lump lime in a flat trough and add just enough water to slake it. 
When it is all slaked, see that it is spread out evenly and cover with an 
inch or so of clear water, to exclude the air. It will be easy to figure 
out the number of square inches of putty to remove in order to have 
the equivalent of the desired weight of lump lime. Do not make the 
mistake of weighing out this putty and considering that a given weight 
is the equal of the same weight of lump lime. 

Arsenate of lead may be combined with diluted Bordeaux mixture ; 
but the better plan is to add it to the limewater before the final mixing. 
The poison should first be well mixed with water, so as to make a 
thin paste, in order that all of it may find its way into the final mix- 



I 



SUMMER STRENGTH LIME SULPHUR 87 

ture. If this is done, allowance must be made for the volume of the 
arsenate of lead solution when filling up the barrel of limewater to 
the requisite 25 gallons. 

A ready prepared Bordeaux paste containing arsenate of lead is on 
sale in stores. 

Summer Strength Lime Sulphur 

Summer strength lime sulphur is now coming into use as a fungi- 
cide for the control of certain diseases. While this is similar, chemi- 
cally, to the lime-sulphur wash used as a winter spray for scale insects, 
it is much weaker. It is prepared by proper dilution of the com- 
mercial concentrated solutions, or by a so-called '' self-boiled " method, 
in which the chemical composition is somewhat different. I'he proper 
dilutions of lime-sulphur concentrate for summer spraying of apples, 
making use of the Baume hydrometer as a measure of strength, are as 
follows : 

In Degrees Baumk • Number of Gallons 

Reading of Hydrometer of Water to One Gal- 

lon OF Concentrate 

35 45 

34 43i 

33 41i 

32 40 

31 37i 

30 36i 

29 34i 

28 32f 

27 31 

26 29^ 

25 27f 

24 26 

23 24i 

22 22f 

21 21i 

20 19f 

19 18i 

18 17 

17 16 

16 15 

15 14 

14 12| 



88 FUNGICIDES COMBINED WITH POISONS 

Remember that these are the dilutions for summer strength lime 
sulphur to be used on apple trees in leaf, and not for the winter wash, 
which is much stronger. 

The self -boiled lime sulphur is for summer use only, and has nothing 
to do with the winter wash used for scale insects. The method of 
making is as follows: 

Place 20 pounds of lump lime in a barrel and pour over it 3 gallons 
of cold water. As soon as the slaking is well started, add 20 pounds of 
flowers of sulphur, which must be free from lumps. Begin stirring the 
mixture as soon as the sulphur is added. A violent heat will be gen- 
rated by the slaking of the lime, and it is this that brings about the 
desired combination of the two materials. Now add more cold water 
until the mass has the consistency of paste. The boiling will subside in 
from 5 to 15 minutes, and at once more cold water must be added so 
that no further action will take place. There should be none of the red 
hquid that indicates the formation of the chemical compounds charac- 
teristic of the winter wash. The mixture may now be diluted for use by 
adding water until there are 100 gallons all told. Great care should be 
taken to follow the above directions accurately, for if the boiling is con- 
tinued too long, compounds will be formed that will burn tender foliage. 
In no case should hot water be used instead of cold, either for slaking 
the lime or for the dilutions. 

Arsenate of lead may be added to the summer strength lime sulphur, 
thus providing a combined fungicide and poison insecticide, with 
certain additional properties as a contact insecticide. This applies 
either to the diluted concentrate or to the self-boiled lime sulphur. 



CHAPTER XIX 
Spray Machinery — General Principles 

Several important considerations should be taken into account in 
the selection and care of spray machinery and appliances. Chief 
among these are the following : 

The spray pump should be of adequate size for the work for which it 
is intended to be used. As will be noted below, there are many different 
sizes and styles of pumps, ranging from the hand atomizer with a 
capacity of a quart or less of spray material, and suitable only for a 
very limited use, to the heavy power outfit fitted with a 200-gallon tank, 
and capable of throwing a stream 70 feet into the air. Either 
outfit would be absolutely unsuited to the work of the other. While 
these two examples are at the extremes, the same principle holds good, 
in lesser form, to other outfits that grade in between these two. It 
is poor economy to save four or five dollars on an outfit and expend 
several times that amount each season in extra labor and time. The 
first question to be decided, therefore, is that of the type and size of 
pump that will be best adapted to the work in hand. 

Whatever the style of pump decided on, it must be made of proper 
materials. Some of the spray solutions in common use have a corroding 
action on iron. The only material that will withstand their attack is 
brass or bronze, and care should be taken to get a pump in which all the 
metal working parts that come into contact with the liquid are of heavy 
brass or similar alloy. This applies to the inside of the cylinder, the 
piston, the valves, valve seats, and any other submerged parts where 
close fitting is essential to the smooth and satisfactory working of the 
apparatus. 

Lately pumps have been placed on the market in which the inside 
of the cylinder is coated with a heavy, white enamel. If this is so 

89 



90 SPEAY MACHINERY — GENERAL PRINCIPLES 

applied that it presents a perfectly true surface for the piston, and if the 
enamel is so baked on that it will not chip or wear rough from the grit 
that invariably gets into spray material, such cylinders should prove 
satisfactory. 

A pump must have an efficient mechanical agitator, which will 
automatically keep the liquid thoroughly stirred. A jet of liquid 
forced out in the vicinity of the intake is insufficient. Agitators of 
the paddle type, connected in some fashion to the pump handle or piston 
rod, are in general use, and are fairly effective. Another style of agi- 
tator works on the principle of a propeller, and gives excellent service. 

The size of air chamber is important. If it is large, the operator of 
the pump will find that a steady pressure can much more easily be 
maintained. Power pumps are apt to have air chambers of proper size, 
because if lacking, they will quickly tell on the working of the engine, 
especially if the latter is of the single cylinder type. Some of the smaller 
hand pumps would be more efficient and would work more easily if pro- 
vided with a more generous air cushion. It should be remembered 
that the spray liquid is only to a minute degree compressible, whereas 
air is resilient and absorbs the variations in pressure between strokes. 

Valves are necessarily a part of every pump, and are of various types. 
Those in commonest use are the poppet valve, the swing check, and 
the ball valve. Of these the ball valve is apt to give the best satis- 
faction, if it is made of proper materials. The action of the liquid tends 
constantly to turn the ball this way and that as it rises and falls, resulting 
in equal wear all round, both as regards the ball and the seat. Poppet 
valves with a single rod guide beneath to hold them in line are very likely 
to wear unevenly and later to leak, resulting in weakened efficiency. 
Any valve with a straight or square, instead of a beveled seat is apt to 
give trouble. All poppet valves present the following difficulty: 
they tend to seat in identical positions, and if grit or other foreign 
matter gets in, there is leakage at one point, which does not promptly 
right itself and soon results in uneven wear. It is essential to the 
satisfactory working of a pump that its valves fit accurately and do not 
leak. 

Ease of getting at the working parts of the pump is worthy of con- 



THE PARTS OF A PUMP 91 

sideration. In spite of the care that may be exercised in keeping the 
apparatus in good order and straining all materials used, there will be 
occasions when it becomes essential to inspect the valves or other 
working parts. If, in order to do this, it is necessary to dismount the 
pump, or to take it entirely to pieces, much time will be lost — prob- 
ably on the very day when time is most valuable. Some of the barrel 
pumps first placed on the market were entirely inclosed in a heavy metal 
casting, and required much time and labor for inspecting their working 
parts. Later types have eliminated this, although some of the older 
pumps are still on the market. 

The piston packing should present adequate surface, and the packing 
itself should be easily replaceable. In some makes of pumps pro- 
vision has been made for tightening up the packing from the outside. 
Leather is not a good material for packing. The chemicals used in 
spray materials will soon harden it and render it unfit for service. 

In some makes of barrel pumps a stuffing box is employed in place of 
piston packing. The objection to this is twofold : it makes a rather 
more complicated apparatus, and it is difficult or impossible to avoid 
excessive friction. In the horizontal, double-action pump a stuffing 
box is necessary, because of the design of the pump, but in this case, 
there is so much gain in efficiency in other ways that the objection noted 
may be disregarded. 



CHAPTER XX 

Types and Sizes of Spray Pumps. "Dusting Apparatus 



Atomizers 




Fig. 56. — A hand atomizer. Original. 

one quart, and are adapted for use on 

work. 

Bucket Pumps 

Bucket pumps are suitable for work in 
a small garden, and for whitewashing or 
spraying poultry houses. They may 
readily be fitted with a longer hose and 
an extension rod, and may then be used 
for spraying fruit trees, if one has only 
a few trees to treat. In garden spray- 
ing their principal disadvantage is the 
fact that one cannot work rapidly when 
compelled to move a bucket along a few 
feet at a time, and that it is not always 
easy to manipulate the pump, and at 
the same time direct the spray where 
needed. 

92 



These are small 
and cheap devices, pro- 
ducing a spray by the 
principle of driving a 
current of air across 
a small outlet tube. 
They are provided 
with a metal or glass 
tank holding about 
house plants, or similar light 




Fig. 57. — A bucket pump. 
Original. 



SMALL HAND PUMPS 



93 



Knapsack Pumps 

Knapsack pumps consist of an oblong tank furnished with straps 
for hanging on the back, and provided with a small, inclosed 
pump, the handle of which projects forward over one's shoulder. 
They are not in general favor. The apparatus is fairly heavy 
to carry, and is likely to 
spill liquid down one's back. 



tl. 


1 < 


f"~X. 


su 


X 


-C^iS \ 


■ ^j^^M[\ 


i0 ^^^^Bv. ^. 




:''H^H|^|y 


; ^^^Kis^h^J 






Fig. 58. 



A knapsack sprayer. 
Original. 



Fig. 59. — An automatic sprayer. 
Original. 



Automatic Sprayers 

Automatic sprayers are air-tight cyUnders designed to be carried by 
hand. The cylinder is filled partly full of the spray material, the top 
fastened on, and by means of a self-contained pump air is forced in 
until the liquid within is under pressure. A valve allows the spray to 
be driven out through the nozzle as desired. The apparatus is handy, 
and desirable for garden work. Its principal disadvantage is the lack of 
an agitator. Only the brass sprayers should be purchased. Those in 
which the tank is made of iron, while cheaper, will not give satisfaction. 

A light extension rod may be attached to the cylinder, and the 
apparatus used for spraying small trees, if only a few are to be 
treated. 



94 



SPRAY APPARATUS 



Barrel Pumps 

Barrel pumps of one type or another are in use in the majority of 
orchards of moderate size where any spraying is done. Usually they 
are mounted directly on a 50-gallon barrel, which serves as the spray 
tank. Such pumps have a capacity ranging from 1 to 4 gallons of 




Fig. 60. — A barrel pump. Original. 



liquid per minute, and are intended to operate at a pressure of 100 to 125 
pounds. They are capable of furnishing material for two leads of hose. 
Commonly the outfit is placed on a wagon of some kind, or on a sled. 
Unless the trees to be sprayed are headed very low, there should be a 
simple tower or elevated platform, about 4 feet high, bolted to the 
wagon, on which one of the operators may stand while the other 
works from the ground. 



LARGE HAND PUMPS 



95 



Horizontal Pumps 

Horizontal hand pumps are typically of the double-action type, and 
have a capacity of 3 to 5 gallons of spray material per minute. They 
have a marked advantage over barrel pumps in that the handle is longer 




Fig. 61. — A convenient tower used in connection with a barrel pump. Original. 

and works in such position that the operator can maintain the desired 
pressm-e and volume with much less effort. They do not bring the 
constant strain on the muscles of the back, characteristic of barrel 
pumps, and since they are double acting, both the forward and the 
reverse strokes count. In efficiency, pumps of tliis type are nearly 
the equivalent of the smaller power outfits. 



96 



SPRAY APPARATUS 



Traction Outfits 

Traction sprayers derive their power from the wheels of the vehicle 
on which the pump and tank are mounted. They are especially useful 
in spraying grapes, potatoes, or other field crops ; in other words, they 
are adapted to the kind of work in which one desires a continuous spray 

delivered constantly 
at a definite position 
or angle. For spray- 
ing of this character 
they may properly be 
selected. For general 
orchard work they 
are not suited unless 
there is some ar- 
rangement by which 
the gearing may be 
disconnected and the 
pump operated by 
hand when desired. 
Outfits of this kind 
should always be pro- 
vided with a large 
air chamber, a pres- 
sure gauge in plain 
sight, and a relief 
valve which will open 




Fig. G2. — A horizontal pump. Original. 



at a certain pressure and allow the liquid to flow back into the tank. 
The capacity of traction sprayers is figured on the basis of a vehicle 
moving at the rate of 250 feet a minute, and ranges from 5 to 18 
gallons of liquid per minute. The connection to wheels is made by 
eccentric, chain, or gearing. 

Hand traction sprayers operate on the same principle, but are much 
smaller, are intended to be wheeled about by hand, have a tank of 
about 20 gallons capacity, and are so arranged that the pump may be 
thrown out of gear and operated in the same fashion as a barrel pump. 



POWER OUTFITS 



97 



They are fairly satisfactory, but are apt to prove heavy and hard to 
manage. In one type the construction is such that a single horse may 
be hitched to the outfit, which is then guided by the operator much in 
the manner of a plow. 

Power Sprayers 

Power outfits consist essentially of a gasoline engine, a rather heavy 
pump geared or belted to the engine, and a large tank, the whole 




Fig. 63. — A gasoline power sprayer. Original. 



98 SPRAY APPARATUS 

mounted on skids or on wheels. Such outfits range in capacity from 4 
to 12 gallons of spray material per minute, and are operated at a pressure 
of 200 pounds or more. The pumps used may be of the large, single 
cylinder, single-action type, or double action, or multiple cylinder. 
The engines in the smaller and medium size outfits are usually of 1^ 
to 3 horse power, single cyhnder, and either air or hopper cooled. In 
the recently designed, extremely powerful outfits, used for spraying 
tall trees from the ground, the engine is of the automobile or marine 
tjT^e, with two, three, or four cylinders. The main advantages of 
power outfits include the rapidity with which the work can be accom- 
plished, the saving of hand labor at pumping, and the high pressure at 
which the spray is applied. Where many trees are to be sprayed, the 
power outfit will do the work at less cost per tree than the less ex- 
pensive, smaller outfit. 

Compressed Air Outfits 

Compressed air sprayers are in use in some orchards. In this type 
of apparatus the sprayer itself consists simply of two large steel tanks 
mounted on skids or wheels, and fitted with the necessary leads of 
hose. One of the tanks is filled with the spray material, while in the 
other air is stored under considerable pressure, usually 160 pounds. 
Pipes connect the air tank with the liquid tank, and the spray material 
is agitated by arranging the inlet of air in such fashion that it comes out 
of a number of jets at intervals along the bottom of the liquid tank. 
The air is compressed at a central station by means of an air com- 
pressor using gasoHne or other power. It is customary to have two 
or more of the sprayers, so that one may be at the central station re- 
ceiving its spray material and its charge of compressed air, while the 
other is in the orchard. Usually the air pressure is reduced to about 
80 pounds by the time a sprayer has discharged its liquid and is ready 
to return to the central station. The system has the advantage of 
rather rapid work, and of comparative simplicity, so far as the sprayer 
itself is concerned. Its disadvantages are the fact that it operates 
necessarily at a constantly changing pressure, thus tending somewhat 
to uneven work, and the high cost of installing the plant. 



DUSTING MACHINES 



99 



Dusting Apparatus 

Various types of machines are obtainable for applying insecticides 
in powder form. Most of these are designed to be carried by hand, and 
rapid work can be done with them under suitable conditions. They are 
not so well adapted to applying materials to trees, nor to situations 
that are difficult to reach because of thick, intervening foliage — as, 
for example, in treating 
vineyards. But for use on 
truck or field crops, espe- 
cially in the application 
of powdered arsenate of 
lead, they have a growing 
utility. In the more de- 
sirable types a constant 
stream of air is maintained 
by a rotary fan, and the 

powder may be directed through one or more outlets as desired. The 
amount of material delivered may also be regulated. 

For dusting field crops a simple device is in use in the South, consist- 
ing of a pole 4 to 8 feet long, to which are tacked cloth bags at 
proper intervals, according to the distance between rows. A hole 
bored through the pole above the bag provides a means of filling it. 
Often the pole is set across a horse's back, the jarring being sufficient to 
sift the poison through the cloth. 




Fig. 64. — A geared powder gun. Original. 



CHAPTER XXI 

Accessories 
Nozzles 

Nozzles, as now designed, have reached a point of greater efficiency 
than was the case a few years ago. On small hand outfits, adapted 
for the kitchen garden, the question of nozzle is not so important. It 
is neither possible nor necessary to get up heavy pressure with these 
outfits, and the amount of work to be done is comparatively light. 
But in orchard spraying, particularly on a large scale, the nozzle may 
greatly help or hinder rapid and satisfactory work. 

The so-called Bordeaux nozzle is one of the older types still in use 
on light hand outfits. It has an adjustable opening, which may be 
arranged so as to throw a semisolid, fan-shaped stream, or a fairly 
fine spray. This nozzle is entirely unsuited to orchard work on any 
considerable scale, but is well liked for vineyard or field spraying be- 
cause the nozzle can quickly be cleaned by reversing the core. 

The vermorel nozzle has a central orifice, back of which is usually some 
particular type of chamber. As originally designed, the entire nozzle 
was small, and the central opening decidedly so. It invariably clogged 
up in short order, and hence was, and is, made with some sort of needle 
built into the central line of the nozzle, and so arranged that this 
needle can be forced forward to clear the orifice. The nozzle gives a 
fine, mist spray. Its defects are its intolerable tendency to clog and the 
fact that it can deliver only a small quantity of spray material; in 
other words, it is of low capacity. However, on light hand outfits, 
it is in general use and is fairly satisfactcry. 

The modern disk nozzle was evolved from the vermorel. It differs 

100 



TYPES OF NOZZLES 



101 



from the old form in being much larger, in having a larger orifice, and 
in relying on the design of the chamber back of the orifice, combined 
with an interposed plate, to give the finely divided spray desired. 
It has large capacity, especially when operating under the heavy 
pressure generated in a power outfit. The tendency to clog is reduced, 
but unfortunately is not by any means entirely eliminated. At the 
present stage in designing, it is the most satisfactory and efficient 
nozzle for ordinary orchard work. Practically all of the manufacturers 
of spray apparatus are making a nozzle of this type. 

For special work in spraying shade trees from the ground still another 
type of nozzle has lately been evolved. This is essentially a heavy brass 



«^#W 



Fig. 65. — Types of nozzles. On the left, the vermorel ; in the center, the disk 
type ; on the right the Bordeaux. Original. 

tube, from three to six feet in length, with gradually diminishing bore, 
ending in a simple round orifice, from one eighth to three eighths of an 
inch in diameter. It is operated under extremely heavy pressure, and 
sends high into the air a solid stream which breaks into a fairly fine spray 
as it nears the summit of its arc. Naturally the material is delivered at 
a rapid rate. The advantage for extensive work on shade trees lies in 
eliminating the necessity of climbing the trees, thereby reducing the 
cost of spraying in spite of the amount of material used. 

Extension Rods 

Extension rods are necessary in orchard spraying, in order to elevate 
the nozzles to a point where the spray can reach the upper parts of the 
tree. Such rods are of two types : small iron pipe, and metal-lined bam- 
boo. Iron rods are more commonly used, and are satisfactory, except 




102 ACCESSORIES 

for their weight. They are more easily grasped if wood handles are 
fitted around them. Bamboo rods are lighter, and therefore tire the 
operator less. Those hned with aluminum sometimes cause trouble 

through the twisting off of 
the connections at the lower 
end of the rod. Where 
aluminum is used the metal 
should be of heavy gauge 
at this point, and should 
be one of the harder alloys. 

_ ^ ^ , , r , , There should be a cut-off 

Fig. 66. — Cut-on and end of bamboo exten- 
sion rod. Original. at the lower end of the ex- 
tension rod, and it should 
have a handle of sufficient size to give a good grasp for turning 
on or off. Unless rods are provided with an easily operated cut-off, 
much spray material will be wasted in working from one part of a tree 
to another or from tree to tree. 

Hose 

Hose leads are essential for barrel or power outfits. The length of 
hose naturally varies with the character of work contemplated. If 
two leads are used from a single pump, and one operator stands on 
the spray wagon or on an elevated platform, it is convenient to have 
the hose in two lengths, the longer for the man on the ground and the 
shorter for the man on the platform. One half or three eighths inch 
hose may be used. The former transmits the pressure to better 
advantage; the latter is lighter to handle. 

Hose connections deserve consideration, especially in outfits designed 
to work under considerable pressure, as in power apparatus. The long 
connections, which admit of two bands on each side instead of one, 
should be selected. 

In high-power outfits for shade-tree work, special hose is needed. 
Connections are obtainable for this work which are provided with 
bands fastened mechanically to the unions, so that the hose cannot 
come apart when being dragged over the ground. 



HOSE — STRAINERS — TANKS 103 

Strainers 

An essential part of any outfit is a good strainer. Many spray 
materials contain a great deal of sediment, and the coarser parts of this 
must be removed if long life is to be expected of the pump, or continual 
clogging of the nozzles avoided. Furthermore, unless all materials are 
carefully strained as they are poured into the spray tank, various sorts 
of foreign matter, such as waste, filings, or bits of wood or leaves, will 
get into the tank and be sucked up into the pump, where they will 
cause trouble. 

A satisfactory strainer can be made by cutting out the central 
portion of the bottom of a 12-quart pail, fastening a large funnel 
securely beneath, and a generous cone of wire cloth above, within the 
bucket. The edges of the wire cloth forming the cone should be 
soldered together. 

Another excellent type consists of an oblong box, one end of which 
is made somewhat sloping, so that the affair can be set into the opening 
of the spray tank without binding. The box is without top or bottom. 
An oblong piece of wire cloth is fastened into the box at an angle, so 
that one end of it is nearer the top than the other. 

In both of these strainers the essential feature is that the wire mesh 
shall be so fixed that sediment will not clog it. In either one the spray 
material will constantly wash clean the upper part of the screen. 
Sediment that collects along the bottom of the screen can readily be 
dumped out from time to time. The wire cloth used should be of 
brass, 20 to 30 meshes to the inch. Nothing else will give satisfactory 
service. 

Spray Tanks 
The ordinary size of spray tank for use with a hand pump in orchard 
work is 50 gallons. Frequently the tank consists of a barrel, with a 
pump mounted on its end or side. 

For use with a power pump the spray tank should be larger, pref- 
erably of 150 to 200 gallons capacity. The best type is the half round, 
because it may more easily be tightened up and kept from leaking. All- 
round stave tanks, if provided with some means of tightening the hoops 



104 ACCESSORIES 

readily, are satisfactory. Iron tanks are somewhat objectionable 
because if copper compounds, such as Bordeaux mixture or copper 
sulphate solution, are used in such tanks, the chemicals will tend to 
break down. Other chemicals have a corroding action on the iron. 

Mixing Tanks 

Where extensive spraying is carried on it is convenient and desirable 
to provide suitable mixing tanks elevated on a stout platform. By 
this means much valuable time will be saved in the preparation of 
materials. In addition, the work of spraying can be completed more 
promptly, the materials applied when they will do the most good, and 
advantage taken of favorable weather conditions. 

The design of a mixing plant will depend on the nature of the work to 
be done, the amount of work, the topography of the location, the source 
of water supply, and like matters. The general principles governing 
its design are the provision of an adequate supply of stock solution, 
convenience in mixing, and the utilization of gravity in transferring 
liquids from stock tanks to mixing tanks, and from the latter to the 
spray tank. Expensive and troublesome outlet valves may be avoided 
by using a section of large diameter hose, the free end of which may be 
fastened up above the level of the hquid in the tank. 



PART III 

INJURIOUS INSECTS 



CHAPTER XXII 



Insect Pests of Garden and Field Crops 




Wire worms {Elateridce) 

WiREWORMS are slender, cylindrical worms, \ inch to 1 inch long, 

their skin brown and shining, the segments showing plainly. They 

have three pairs of small, dark legs close to the front end of the body. 

The whole insect looks 

tough and wiry. 

They infest a variety 

of field and garden 

crops, working on or in 

the roots or tubers, and 

are especially injurious 

to corn and potatoes, 

though they attack 

freely wheat, oats, and 

other cereals. 
There are several 

species, differing in 

minor characters but alike in general appearance and manner of work. 

All are the larvae of " chck beetles," or " snapping beetles." Ordinarily 

they breed in sod 
ground, the w^orms 
feeding on the roots 
of grasses. In such 
circumstances their 
presence is seldom 
noted, because the 

Fig. 68. — The Wheat Wireworm. Enlarged and nat- ground is SO well 
ural size. Original. filled with rootS that 

107 



Fig. 67. — Adult of the Wheat Wireworm, Agri- 
otes mancus Say. Enlarged and natural size. 
Original. 




108 



PESTS OF GARDEN AND FIELD CROPS 




Fig. 69. — A common wire- 
worm, Melanotus communis 
Gyll. Original. 




Fig. 70. — r Larva and pupa of Melan- 
otus communis Gyll. Original. 



their work does not attract attention. But when such ground is 
broken up and planted to potatoes or corn, the worms have com- 
paratively little to feed 
on, and quickly become 
a pest. They are slow 
in development, re- 
quiring two years or 
more as larvae, so that 
there are many of them 
remaining the follow- 
ing year after sod, and 
often many the second 
year. 

Suitable crop rota- 
tion, combined with 
fall plowing and culti- 
vation, is the only 
means of handling 
these pests. They do 
not injure clover or 
related plants, as a rule, and where fields are badly infested it is 
wise to put one of the legumes into the rotation following sod. No 
applications to the soil will kill the worms unless made so strong as 
also to kill plant life. 




Fig. 71. — Work of wireworms in potato. Original. 



WIREWORMS AND GRUBS INJURING THE ROOTS 109 




Fig. 72. — Adult of a white grub, 
Lachnosterna fusca Froehl. Original. 



White Grubs {Lachnosterna spp.) 

The presence of white grubs usually is first indicated by the dying 
off of plants here and there in the field or garden. Corn, and various 
garden crops as well as straw- 
berries, are subject to marked 
injury. 

Examination of the soil beneath 
plants attacked will disclose the 
grubs. They will be found lying 



somewhat curled up, are soft- 
bodied, an inch to an inch and a 
quarter long, and have a brown 
head. The end of the abdomen is 
swollen and darkened. 

The adults are brown, heavy-bodied beetles, familiarly known as 
" May beetles " or '' June bugs." They fly at night, feed on the leaves 

of various trees, and are attracted to 
lights. Eggs are laid in the soil, and 
about two years are required for the 
development of the grub. At the end 
of the second summer the larva makes 
a pupal cell in the soil at a depth of a 
foot or less, and transforms to the 
beetle ; but the latter is soft-bodied at 
first, and does not grow hard and emerge 
until the following spring. Grass land 
is the natural breeding place, and injury 
usually occurs in fields that have been 
in sod for a number of years, and have recently been broken up 
for other crops. 

Careful planning of crop rotations is the best means of avoiding 
injury. Fall plowing will help to some extent. Chickens following the 
plow will destroy the grubs turned up. Hogs are fond of white grubs, 
and will root up and eat large numbers of them. There is no chemical 
that may be appUed to the soil to kill them. 




Fig. 73. — Larva of Lachno 
sterna fusca Froehl. Original. 



110 PESTS OF GARDEN AND FIELD CROPS 

Leather Jackets ( Tipulidoe) 

Occasionally field crops, such as wheat, grasses, or clpvers, are 
seriously injured by large numbers of naked grubs, the young stages of 
several species of crane flies {Tipulidce). The adults are slender-bodied 
very long-legged insects, often known as ^' galhnippers " or " giant 
mosquitoes." The grubs are an inch or less in length, dark in color, 
cylindrical, tough, the hind end blunt. They work just beneath the 
surface of the ground, eating the roots, traveling from plant to plant 
in the soil. 

The grubs are half grown in the fall, and winter in a dormant 
condition. In spring growth is resumed. The adults emerge in early 
summer, and prefer fields that have grown up to tall grasses or other 
herbage. There is a second generation in summer, the adults laying 
eggs again in grassland in September. 

Plowing before September 1 will place the field in such condition that 
the adults will not lay eggs in it, and thus protect winter wheat from 
injury. On grass or clover no effective means of avoiding or stopping 
attack is known, except plowing up. 

Ants {Formicina) 

Frequently colonies of ants of one kind or another take up their abode 
in gardens, and prove a nuisance. They can easily be killed by the 
use of carbon bisulphide. With a pointed stick make several holes into 
the hills, and then pour into each half an ounce or so of carbon bisulphide, 
at once pressing the foot on the earth to close the hole. The fumes will 
penetrate the ground and kill off all of the colony. 

In some sections of the Gulf states and in parts of California a persist- 
ent and destructive ant has become established : the so-called Argen- 
tine Ant {Iridomyrmex humilis Mayr). It is a nuisance through enter- 
ing dwellings, and frequently is destructive in gardens. This species 
tends to hunt for warm quarters as winter approaches. Advantage is 
taken of this habit by providing a box of suitable decaying vegetable 
matter in the garden, preferably a mixture of cotton seed and straw. 
As this m.aterial decomposes it heats, and many colonies of ants, includ- 



SMALL WORMS BORING IN THE ROOTS 111 

ing the overwintering queens, migrate to it. The whole thing is then 
covered with canvas and fumigated with carbon bisulphide. Summer 
colonies are killed by fumigation in the same manner as described above 
for other species, or by poisoning with dilute arsenic and sweetened 
water, as described in the chapter on Household Insects. 

The Southern Corn Root-worm {Diahrotica duodecimpurictata Oliv.) 

The presence of the southern corn root- worm or " bud- worm " is 
usually first indicated by an enfeebled growth of the young plants. 
The leaves turn yellow, or the plant simply fails to make a norm.al, 
vigorous growth. If a plant is pulled up and the roots are shaken, some 
of the grubs will likely be thrown out, and the round holes where they 
have bored into the side of the main stalk, just below the ground, will 
be noted. The grubs are about three fourths of an inch long when full 
grown, are quite slender, smooth, white or light yellow, and have a 
small brown head. 

The adult of this worm is a small beetle, about one fourth of an 
inch long, commonly known as the twelve-spotted cucumber beetle. 
It is greenish yellow in color, and has twelve black spots on its back. 
It feeds on the pollen or silk of corn, on a great variety of garden 
crops, especially cucumbers, squashes, melons, and related plants, and 
sometimes on the young heads of various grains or grasses. 

Control of the root-worm in corn is largely dependent on general 
farming methods. Crop rotation will help to hold it in check, and so 
will systematic clean tillage. The worms do not infest the roots of 
cotton, buckwheat, or the smaller grains. Late-planted corn is less 
liable to attack, and so is corn in well-drained land. Many farmers 
find it expedient to plant an excess of seed. Remedies for the adults 
on garden crops are given elsewhere. 

The Western Corn Root-worm {Diahrotica longicornis Say) 

In the Central states the roots of corn are injured by a small, slender 
worm which mines in the main roots, tunneling here and there, seriously 
checking the growth of the plant if not killing it entirely. The worm is 



112 



PESTS OF GARDEN AND FIELD CROPS 




Fig. 74. — The Western Corn Root- 
worm. Adult. Enlarged and natu- 
ral size. Original. 




two fifths of an inch long, slender, whitish or yellowish, and has a 
black or brown head. 

The adult is a small beetle, greenish in color, one fourth of an inch in 

length. It is 
found occasion- 
ally on melons 
or squashes, along 
with its relative, 
the striped cu- 
cumber beetle, 
but is more apt 
to be seen on sun- 
flowers, golden 
rod, or thistle 
blossoms. 
There is one generation each year. The winter 
is passed as eggs beneath the surface of the ground. 

The simplest means of control is crop rotation. 
The eggs are laid only in cornfields in late summer, 
and the larvae are injurious only to corn. If corn 
is planted in fields that have been in other crops, it 
will not be injured. In practice it is usually safe 
to run corn two years in succession, changing to another crop the 

third year. 

Corn-root Webworms {Crambus spp.) 

Young corn plants are seriously injured or killed by several species 
of webworms feeding on the roots, or on the stalk close to the surface of 
the ground. The outward evidence of attack is the stunted growth of 
the corn or the death of young plants. Injury is always worse in ground 
just broken up from sod. 

The same insects attack in similar fashion young tobacco plants in 
certain eastern sections. 

Several species are recorded, all in the genus Crambus, and including 
C. vulvivagellus Clem., C. luteolellus Clem., C. trisectus Walk., and C, 
mutabilis Clem. 



Fig. 75. — Work 
of the West- 
ern Corn Root- 
worm. Origi- 
nal. 



WEB WORMS INJURING THE ROOTS 



The worms feed in a silk tube more or less covered wi 
tides of dirt. They- vary in color from yellowish to br 
are three fourths to one inch long when full grown, and theu 
bodies have numerous low tubercles. They hatch from eggs 
laid by small, active moths which have the habit of resting on 

grass stems with their wings folded 
around their bodies. The natural breed- 
ing place is grassland. There are two 
generations annually, the moths of the 
second brood appearing in the latter 
part of summer. Winter is passed by 
the half-grown worms in the soil. 





Fig. 76. — Larval case of Corn- 
root Webworm at base of corn 
plant. Original. 



Fig. 77. — Larval cases of a Corn-root 
Webworm, Crambus vulvivagellus Clem. 
Natural size. The one at the left cut 
open to show pupa within. Original. 



Fall plowing and cultivation will help to hold the pests in check, but 
to avoid injury do not plant corn in land that is just broken up from sod. 
Land that is fallowed in the latter part of summer will not be infested 
the next spring, for the moths will not lay eggs on bare ground. 

The Corn Root Aphis (Aphis maidi-radicis Forbes) 

Colonies of bluish green " lice " suck the juices from the roots of 
corn, and in certain sections feed also on the roots of other plants, in- 



PESTS OF GARDEN AND FIELD CROPS 



_, cotton, squash, pumpkin, and strawberries. Plants badly 
.eked are stunted, lack color, and otherwise show that they are not 
.naking a healthy growth. Examination of the roots will then show 
large numbers of the lice. 

The corn root aphis is cared for, and is dependent on, colonies of ants. 
The latter are usually the common, small, brown ants of the species 
Lasius niger americanus Mayr. 

In winter the eggs of the aphis are cared for by these ants, who keep 
them in their nests, bring them out in the sunlight on warm days and 
carry them below frost line when the weather is severe. In spring the 

aphis eggs hatch, and the jT/ung wingless 
lice are carried by the ants to suitable 
weeds, the roots of which will form ac- 
ceptable food until the corn has sprouted. 
Thereafter the ants are in constant at- 
tendance on the lice, transferring them to 
the roots of corn when the latter become 
available. 

As warm weather comes on, the Hce 
give birth to a second generation of living 
young, in which winged individuals ap- 
pear, and these migrate to new fields. 
Breeding goes on rapidly, the number 
of generations sometimes reaching a dozen in the course of the sum- 
mer. In the fall eggs are laid, and these are cared for again by the 
ants until another season. 

In control, the most important measure is to plow and harrow in the 
fall, so as to break up the nests of the ants. Keeping the fields clean of 
weeds will help materially, depriving the lice of food in the spring. 
Rotation is of value, since the first generation of the lice are wingless 
and by the time winged individuals appear corn will be sufficiently 
advanced to withstand attack from lice that fly in from other places. 
It is helpful, also, to keep corn growing vigorously. 




Fig. 78. — Larva of Cramhus 
luteolellus Clem. Slightly en- 
larged. Original. 



PLANT LICE ATTACKING THE ROOTS 



115 




Fig. 79.' 
Clem. 



-Adult of Crambus luteolellus 
Slightly enlarged. Original. 



Plant Lice attacking Beet Roots 

In Washington and Oregon sugar beets sometimes are seriously 
infested by a plant louse {Pemphigus betce Donne) . Affected plants 
fail to make normal growth, ' 
look sickly, and the main root 
grows spongy. The lice cluster 
on the smaller rootlets. There 
are several generations in the 
course of a single season, and 
occasionally winged individuals 
appear and fly to other fields. 
It is probable that the species 
lives normally on some wild 
plant, but the identity of this 
has not been discovered. 

In Colorado another species, Tychea brevicornis Hart., has wrought 
similar injury. 

No direct means of control is known for either of these pests. 

The Sugar-cane Mealy-bug {Pseudococcus calceolaricB Mask.) 

In Louisiana the roots, crown, and stalk of sugar cane are attacked 
by small, degenerate insects which work in clusters made conspicuous by 
a white, cottony secretion. The insect itself is soft bodied, pink, and 

wingless. Only the males are winged, 
and they are seldom noticed. 

For the most part they pass the 
winter on seed cane, but may sur- 
vive also on Johnson grass. When 
the seed cane is planted in the 
spring, the young are transferred 
with it to the fields. They may 
hibernate also on cane stubble. 

Rotation of crops is the first 
move towards eradication, combined 




Fig. 80. — The common, brown ant, 
Lasius niger americanus Mayr. 
Enlarged and natural size. Original. 



116 



PESTS OF GARDEN AND FIELD CHOPS 



with washing the seed cane with whale-oil soap. Remnants of cane in 
the fields, and Johnson grass in or near by, should be burned. 



The Clover Root-borer {Hylastinus obscurus Marsh.) 
In the Central states clover is subject to considerable injury by this 
insect, the presence of which is seldom recognized. The adult beetle 

is small, dark, and cylindrical. 
Coming out in the spring from 
clover roots, in which it has 
passed the winter, it lays eggs 
in shallow cavities which it ex- 
cavates in the sides of the larger 
roots of clover plants in the 
same or adjoining fields. The 
grubs that hatch from these eggs 
burrow in and through the roots, 





Fig. 81. — Work of the Clover Root- 
borer. Original. 



Fig. 82. — Adult of the 
Clover Root-borer. En- 
larged and natural size. 
Original. 



sometimes completely destroying their central parts and killing 
the plant. 

In the latter part of summer the grub changes to a pupa, from which a 
beetle emerges in fall, but remains in the root until the following spring. 

Only two-year-old plants are likely to be attacked. Plowing a badly 
infested field at once after haying will kill many of the grubs, because 
the roots will be turned up and dried out. Pasturing a field serves to 



BORING IN MAIN ROOT-STALK OR TUBER 



111 



check injury or to prevent it. Clover, if infested, should not be allowed 
to stand after the second season's haying. 

The Sweet Potato Root-borer {Cijlas formicarius OUv.) 
In some sections in the Gulf states the tubers of sweet potatoes, both 
in the field and in storage, are infested with borers, whitish in color, 
robust, one fourth of an inch long. The adult is a small snout beetle 
with dark blue wing covers and brown thorax. It lays its eggs in the 
end of the tuber where it chances to project from the ground, or some- 
times at the base of the vine. There are several generations annually. 
Eggs may be laid on potatoes in storage. 

The only means of control is to keep the tubers well covered with 
earth. If infested, the crop should be harvested early and at once 
fumigated with carbon bisulphide. 



The Potato-tuber Worm (PhthorimcEaoperculella ZeW.) 
In California this tiny insect is a pest of prime importance to potato 
growers. Injury is twofold. The stalks of potato vines are tunneled, 
the vines badly damaged or killed; and the tubers themselves are 




Fig. 83. 



Adult of the Potato-tuber Worm, 
and natural size. Original. 



Enlarged 



118 



p:ests of garden and field crops 



attacked, both in the field and in storage. The worm is quite small, 
only one fourth of an inch long. Eggs are laid on the vine by the 
parent moth, the grub tunneling down just beneath the skin of the stalk. 
Or eggs may be laid on potatoes that are not entirely covered with 
earth. Further damage goes on after the potatoes are dug. 

^-^y I Control consists in cleaning up related 

weeds, prompt removal of wilting vines, 
p destruction of the vines after digging, and 

immediate sorting and fumigation of the 

tubers. 

The Cabbage-maggot (Pegomya brassicce 
Bouche) 

The roots of cabbage, cauliflower, turnip, 
and radish are seriously injured or destroyed 





Fig. 84. —Work of the Cab- 
bage-maggot. Original. 



Fig. 85. — Cabbage-maggots on cabbage 
root. Enlarged. Original. 



MAGGOTS ATTACKING THE ROOTS 



119 





Fig. 87. — Work of the Cabbage-maggot 
in radishes. Original. 



Fig. 86. — Adult of the Cabbage- 
maggot. Enlarged and natural 
size. Original. 

by soft, whitish maggots, one 
fourth of an inch long. When 
working on cabbage, the mag- 
gots eat away the root hairs and 
gnaw into the larger root. Their 
work is accompanied often by 
more or less decay of the tissue. 
When working on radishes, they frequently tunnel entirely within 
and through the fleshy main root, or cause injury of such a 
nature that a much-branched root is developed instead of a 
single, symmetrical tap root. 

A hairy, two-winged fly is the parent of the maggots. Eggs are 

laid on the ground 
near the stem, or on 
the stem itself, and 
the young maggots 
make their way into 
the ground along the 
outside of the stem. 

rr. , r ... , , ,. , There are two to four 

■Tool for cutting hexagonal disks. 

Original. generations annually. 




Fig. 88. 



120 



PESTS OF GARDEN AND FIELD CROPS 



In the fall eggs, larvae, and adults may be found in old cabbage 

stumps. 

The maggots may be killed by pouring around each plant a half cup of 

carbolic acid emulsion. A pointed stick may be thrust diagonally 

beneath each plant and a teaspoonful of carbon bisulphide poured 

down the hole. 

The maggots may be prevented from gaining access to the roots by 

fitting a disk of tarred paper around the stem of each plant. The disks 

should be about four inches in di- 
ameter, slit to the center, and marked 
with short cross cuts at this point, so 
that they may be fitted closely and 
easily around the stem. When in 
place, the disks rest flat on the ground. 
A handy tool for cutting hexagonal disks 
in quantity is illustrated. After the 
first row of cuts has been made across 
a sheet of cardboard each additional 
cut will make one disk. 

It is of importance to clean up all 
old cabbage stumps in the fall. Deep 
plowing will reduce the number of the 
flies the succeeding year. Rotation of 
crops is desirable. Abundant fertil- 
ization will help cabbages to withstand 
attack. 



The Onion Maggot {Phorhia cepetorum 
Meade) 

Infestation by the onion maggot is 
similar to that of the related species 
working on the roots of cabbage and 
radish. The eggs are laid by the adult 
fly in the leaf sheaths, and the mag- 
gots work their way down into the 




Fig. 89.— Work of the Onion 
Maggot. Original. 



MAGGOTS ATTACKING THE ROOTS 



121 




Fig. 90. — Adult of the Onion Maggot. 
Enlarged and natural size. Original. 

bulb. There are two to four gener- 
ations each year. 

Practical means of direct control 
are wanting. Onions should be 
planted each season in fields as far 
removed from the previous season's 
planting as may be. In small plots 
carbolic acid emulsion may be used. 
Liberal amounts of tobacco dust 
along the rows will act as a fair 
deterrent. 

The Barred-winged Onion Maggot 
{Chcetopsis cenea Wied.) is a similar 

species found on onions, and sometimes on the roots of corn and 
sugar cane. The life history and the remedies are similar. 




Fig. 91. — Work of the Seed-corn 
Maggot on the roots of beans. 
Original. 



V The Seed-corn Maggot {Pegomya fusciceps Zett.) 

This insect sometimes works on sprouting sweet corn, but is rather 
a pest of beans and peas. It is a white, soft-bodied maggot, without 
legs, and works beneath the surface of the ground, eating into and 
destroying newly planted peas or beans, especially just as the tender 



122 



PESTS OF GARDEN AND FIELD CROPS 




Fig. 92. — The Seed-corn Maggot. 
Enlarged and natural size. Orig- 
inal. 



sprouts are pushing above the 
ground. A later generation works 
in similar fashion. The adult is 
a two-winged fly. 

The apphcation of carboHc acid 
emulsion is the only direct remedy 
available. Injury is apt to be 
worse when manure has been ap- 
phed to the fields in the spring, 
probably because it attracts the 
adult flies or offers them shelter. 



The Carrot Rust-fly {Psila rosce Fab.) 

The leaves of the plants attacked turn red or rusty looking, while the 
roots are tunneled by small brown maggots, one fourth of an inch long. 




Fig. 93. — Work of the Carrot Rust-fly. Original. 



On the surface the root may not show much evidence of injury, but 
when it is cut through, the brown burrows will be evident. Occa- 
sionally celery is attacked by the same species. 

The adult is a slender-bodied, two-winged fly. There is one genera- 
tion annually in the field, but breeding may at times go on in carrots 
in storage. 



BEETLES BORING IN MAIN STALK 



123 




Fig. 94. — Adult of the Carrot Rust-fly. En- 
larged and natural size. Original. 

The Sugar-cane Beetle {Ligyrus rugiceps 
Lee.) 

The stubble and stalks of sugar cane, 
and the stalks of corn, are burrowed 
into below the ground by a chunky, black 
beetle, about half an inch long, with 
stout, coarsely spined legs. Corn is 
usually killed, while cane may partly re- 
cover and make some growth, though 
the yield will be short. The injury takes 
place for the most part early in the 
growing sea- 
son. 

Eggs are 
laid in the 
ground on the 
weakened or 
decaying 
The Sugar-cane roots. The 




Carrots planted 
late escape serious 
injury. Direct 
measures of con- 
trol are the same 
as for the onion 
maggot. Freshly 
manured fields 
should be avoided. 



Fig. 96. 

Beetle. Original. 



a r V a 



is 



Fig. 95. — Work of the Sugar- 
cane Beetle. Original. 



124 



PESTS OF GARDEN AND FIELD CROPS 



fleshy grub. There is one generation annually. The insect hiber- 
nates in the soil in cane fields. 

Planting of cane should be deferred until spring in order to have 
opportunity of spring plowing and cultivation. The running of 
second or third year cane should be avoided. Trash should be cleaned 
up in the fall. Corn should not follow cane. 



The Carrot Beetle {Ligyrus gibbosus De G.) 
The roots of carrot, celery, parsnips, sugar beets, potatoes, and 
corn are eaten into by a beetle, which works usually just below the 
surface of the ground. The 
insect is black above, reddish 





Fig. 97. 



-The Carrot Beetle. 
Original. 



Fig. 98. 



■Work of the Carrot Beetle. 
Original. 



beneath, and about half an inch long. There is one generation a 
year. The adults come out in the latter part of summer, and over- 
winter in the soil. Damage may occur either in fall or in spring. 

Removal of crop remnants, fall plowing 
and cultivation, and similar cultural meas- 
ures are advised. 



The Slender Seed-corn Ground-beetle 

{Clivina impressifrons Lee.) 

Seed corn planted in low or peaty ground 
sometimes is injured or destroyed by a 
small beetle which eats out the heart of 
the sprouting kernels. The insect is a little 




Fig. 99. — The Seed-corn 
Agonoderus. Enlarged to 
twice natural size. Orig- 
inal. 



WORMS BORING IN MAIN STALK 



125 



less than a half inch long, dark red, somewhat flattened, and has a 
large thorax and a fairly narrow " waist." 

The pest passes the winter as an adult beetle in the ground. The 
larvae are found throughout summer in the ground, and are very 
active, attacking other insects. 

Since only wet gromid is chosen by this insect, corn should be omitted 
from such fields if possible. Late planting apparently serves to dis- 
courage the beetles, and to ward off most of the injury. 

Occasionally similar damage is done by another ground beetle, 
Agonoderus pallipes Fab. It is a black, oblong beetle, one fourth of an 
inch long, and destroys corn by eating out the germ end. No direct 
remedial measures have been devised. 

The Corn-stalk Borer {Diatrcea zeacolella Dyar) 

In both Northern and Southern states field corn is subject to serious 
injury by a borer, the immature stage of a moth, closely related to 




Fig. 100. — Work of the Sugar-cane Borer. Original. 



126 



FESTS OF GARDEN AND FIELD CROPS 



the sugar-cane borer. In early summer, the tender unfolding leaves 
are found riddled, and often the central part destroyed, so that growth 
is aborted. In midsummer a new generation of borers works in the 
pith of the lower stalks, making numerous channels, often causing 
the stalk to break down in strong winds. 

The first lot of moths are out early in the growing season, and lay 
eggs on the young leaves. In the fall the larva of the second brood 
burrows down into the base of the stalk, where it spends the winter. 

Control measures consist in the removal and destruction of all 
stalks left in the field in fall. If the stalks are short, they may be 
plowed under deeply. Rotation of crops will help in control. 



The Sugar-cane Borer {Diatroea saccharalis Fab.) 

The work of this borer in sugar cane is similar to that of the related 
species in corn. The larvae destroy the buds or " eyes " by entering 

the stalk through them, stunting the 
growth of the young plants, and their 
burrows so weaken the main stalks that 
the plants break off in strong winds. In 
addition the sugar content is seriously 
lowered. 

Eggs are laid on the leaves, and the 
larvae feed for a short time in the upper 
whorls, but soon enter the cane. Pu- 
pation takes place within the stalk. There 
may be several broods annually. Winter 
is passed as larva or pupa within the cane, 
and emergence of adults begins early in 
the spring. 

Control is difficult. All tops and trash 
should be spread out to dry, and burned as soon as possible. Infested 
cane around sheds and refineries should be destroyed. Shoots and 
suckers from the stubble of early cut cane should be cut off, so as 
to cause the death of the young borers within that otherwise would 
hibernate. 




Fig. 101. — Adult of the 
Sugar-cane Borer. Original. 



SMALL WORMS IN STALK OR STEM ABOVE GROUND 127 



The Smaller Corn Stalk-borer (Elasmopalpus lignosellus Zell.) 

The stalks of corn, peas, peanuts, and possibly other plants are 
attacked by a small cylindrical worm, half an inch long when full 




Fig. 102. — Larvae of the 
Smaller Corn Stalk- 
borer. Original. 




Fig, 103.— Adult of the Smaller Corn 
Stalk-borer. Original. 



grown, light greenish in color, its back marked with nine fine, reddish 
lines, somewhat interrupted at each segment. It works within the 
stalk, but makes three or four holes to the surface, here and there, 
tlirough which it pushes out excrement. 

The adult moth expands three quarters of an inch. Hibernation 

may take place as adult, as larva in the stalks, or as pupa in the ground. 

The means of control include rotation of crops, prompt destruction 

of the remnants of infested stalks, and fall plowing 

and cultivation. 



The Clover Stem-borer (Languria mozardi Latr.) 

Tiny grubs are 
found boring inside 
the stems of clover. 
They are the larvae of 
a beetle, one third 
of an inch long, with 
dark blue wing covers 

and a red head and 

^, ,^^, 1 Fig. 105. — Adult of the Clover 

thorax. Where clover stem-borer. Enlarged and natu- 

is regularly mowed ral size. Original. 






Fig. 104. —Work 
of the Clover 
S t e m-b o r e r . 
Original. 




128 



PESTS OF GARDEN AND FIELD CROPS 



or pastured, the pest is never abundant enough to demand special 

treatment. 

Bill-bugs (Sphenophorus spp.) 

Bill-bugs are small, dark snout beetles, one fourth to three fourths 
of an inch long. Their serious injury is to young corn, and varies 

somewhat according to the species 
at work. 





Fig. 107. — A Bill-bug, Sphenophorus 
costipennis Horn. Original. 

The Maize Bill-bug {Spheno- 
phorus maidis Chittn.) injures corn, 
both in its larval stage as a grub 
burrowing in the lower part of 
the stalk and the taproot, and 




Fig. 106. — Work of Bill-bugs. 
Original. 



Fig. 108. — A Bill-bug, Sphenophorus 
zeoe Walsh. Original. 



as an adult beetle, later in the summer. Infested corn looks 
unthrifty, is stunted, and later the stalks are distorted and twisted. 
If a stalk is cut open, the burrow of the grub will be found in 
its lower part, and up to August the grub itself will be found, 
a small, thickset larva with a black head. By September the adult 
beetle, black, two fifths to three fifths of an inch long, will be found in 



GRUBS OR MAGGOTS INJURING STALK OR STEM 129 

the lower part of the burrow, about the level of the crown. The beetles 
hibernate in this position, in the uncut part of the stalk. Control 
of this species is secured by removal and destruction of the corn 
stubble, taking care to get the lower part of the plant with the remnant 
of stalk. 

Other species injure corn only as adults. Cavities are eaten in 
the stalk or through the crown, the punctures showing as the leaves 
unfold. One of these species passes its larval life as a grub in the bulb 
of timothy; another in wild sedges growing in wet ground. With 
these, to avoid injury it is necessary to refrain from planting corn on 
recently drained ground. If possible, such lands should be burned 



The Western Grass-stem Sawfly {Cephus occidentalis Riley and 

Marlatt) 

In the northwest, in recent years, wheat has been injured by the 
work of a grub that bores in the stem, causing the kernels to dwarf, 
and often causing the stem to break over close to the ground. The 
larva is three fourths of an inch long, yellowish white. The adult is a 
four-winged sawfly, its abdomen banded with yellow. 

Eggs are laid just below the head of the grain attacked. The grub 
bores down within the stem, girdles it from the inside not far above 
the ground, and remains below the girdle until the following spring, 
when the adults emerge. The native food plants are quack grass, 
wheat grass, brome grass, rye grass, and timothy. 

Remedial measures consist in keeping down the growth of native 
grasses around wheat, and in plowing the stubble in fall or early 
spring so as to kill the insects hiding within it or prevent emergence 
of the adults. 

The Joint-worm {Isosoma tritici Fitch) 

The presence of joint- worm in wheat is nearly always accompanied 
by distortions or enlargements of the stem at the point where the 
grub is at work. Such parts become hardened, and are apt to come 
out with the grain at threshing. The heads of badly infested plants 



130 



PESTS OF GARDEN AND FIELD CROPS 



usually are stunted and give a reduced yield, and the straw tends to 
break down. 

The adult of the grub that does this mischief is a small, black, 



four-winged fly. 



It lays its eggs in the standing stem of 
wheat in May or June in the uppermost joint 
available. Several larvae may develop within 
a single stem. The larva remains in the straw 
until the following spring. 

In control cut the straw as low as possible, so 
as not to leave many larvse in the field. Infested 
straw not used up by April 1 may be burned, 
but usually not many adults issue from dry, 
well-made straw stacks. The best measure is to 
burn the stubble in the field. Where clover is 
growing in the stubble, it is possible to choose 
a time in winter or spring when the clover 
has been frozen down, and will not be injured. 
Rotation should be 
practiced, and wheat 
kept growing vigor- 
ously so that it may 
be well along by the 
time the adults come 
out to lay their eggs. 
In such plants the 
larvae will cause less 
loss in yield than in 
backward or weak 
plants. 

A closely related 
species, Isosoma hordei Harr., attacks the stems of barley, causing 
a distortion of the stem at the point of injury, and more or less 
reduction in yield, as in the case of the species infesting wheat. 
The recommendations for control are the same. 




Fig. 109. — The 
Joint-worm. Larva 
and work. En- 
larged. Original. 




Fig. 110. 
Adult, 
ral size. 



— The Joint-worm. 
Enlarged and natu- 
Original. 



GRUBS OR MAGGOTS INJURING STALK OR STEM 131 



The Wheat Straw-worm {Isosoma grande Riley) 
In the wheat growing regions west of the Mississippi this insect 
causes much damage. Its work is of two types. Overwintering, 
mostly wingless adults lay eggs in April 
in the tender tissues of young wheat plants. 
The grubs that hatch from these feed in 

the crown of the plant, 

practically destroying it 

so that growth stops. 

After a pupal stage a 

second generation of adults 

in late May or June 

emerges. These are' winged, 

and are apt to disperse 

rather widely. The female 

lays eggs in the wheat 

stem, below the head and 

just above the youngest 

joint that is not covered 

with a sheath of leaves. 

Larvae hatching from these 

eggs feed in the stem, and 

remain in the straw until 

the next season. The 

plant attacked will mature 

a head, but the kernels 

are apt to be small. 
Rotation is important because it will prevent damage by the first, 
wingless generation, which causes the more serious injury. The 
overwintering larva can be killed by burning or otherwise disposing 
of the straw and stubble. 

The Wheat-stem Maggot (Meromyza americana Fitch) 
The evidence of the presence of the wheat-stem maggot is a char- 
acteristic blanching of the heads of wheat, rye, oats, or other small 




Fig. 111.— 
Work of Iso- 
soma hordei. 
Original. 




Fig. 112. — Work of the 
Wheat Straw-worm. Orig- 
inal. 



132 



PESTS OF GARDEN AND FIELD CEO PS 



grains here and there in a green, growing field. Often the stem below 
the head will be somewhat shriveled or discolored. A tiny maggot may 
be fomid within the stem. The adult is a small fly with a striped body. 

The first generation of 
flies emerge in early sum- 
mer from the young plants. 
Their offspring are the brood 
of maggots that cause the 
blanched heads. 

The adults of these mag- 
gots emerge after normal 
tliresliing time, and there 
follows a midsummer gen- 
eration on volunteer grain 
or wild grasses. Adults 
from these lay eggs on fall 
wheat or native grasses, and 
the maggots from these sur- 
vive the winter, completing 
growth in the spring. On 
fall wheat they injure the 
base of the plant. 

Prompt threshing and 
stacking will kill many of 
the insects in the ripe straw, 

_ rr,, ,x., ,, » , , and bury the survivors in 

Fig. 113. — The Wheat-stem Maggot. Adult, *^ 

enlarged, and work, natural size. Original. ^^^ stack where the flies can- 
not get out to go through 
the midsummer generation on grasses. Late sowing of fall wheat 
probably will help to some extent. 




The Stalk Borer {Papaiyema nitela Guen.) 

The stalks of many kinds of plants, such as tomato, corn, oats, 
barley, and others, are attacked by a worm which bores into them 
from without, feeds within, and frequently bores out again, moving 



CATERPILLAR BORING IN MAIN STEM 



133 



to a neighboring stalk. The entrance and 
often the exit holes of the worms are evi- 
dent, together with castings thrown out 




Fig. 115. — Stem cut open, showing larva of 
Stalk Borer at work. Original. 

of the burrow, and the plant often wilts 
beyond the point of attack. 

The full-grown larva measures about an 



Fig. 114. — Work of the 
Stalk Borer. Original. 




Fig. 116. — Adult of the Stalk Borer. Original. 



inch in length. It is marked with five longitudinal stripes, but those 
on its sides are broken and wanting from the third to the seventh 
segments. The adult is a gray moth. Eggs are laid in the fall on 
the ground near suitable food plants, and hatch the next spring. 



134 



PESTS OF GARDEN AND FIELD CROPS 



Certain weeds, especially burdock and ragweed, are the native 
food plants. Control consists in cutting and promptly destroying 
such weeds in or near the crops or plants attacked. The only direct 
measures feasible are removal of infested stalks as soon as the presence 
of the borers is discovered. 




Fig. 117. — Work of the Squash Borer. Original. 



The Squash Borer {Melittia satyriniformis Hbn.) 
Whitish, fleshy grubs, about an inch long when full grown, bore 
in the stems of squashes and sometimes pumpkins or melons, often 





Fig. 118. — Larva of the Squash Borer 
in stem of plant. Slightly enlarged. 
Original. 



Fig. 119. — Cocoon and 
empty pupal shell of the 
Squash Borer. Original. 



killing the part of the plant beyond them. Yellowish excrement will 
be found beneath the stem at the points where they are at work. 



WHITISH GRUBS BORING IN THE STALK 



135 




Eggs are laid on the vines 
by the adults in early summer. 
The parent is a handsome moth. 
There is one generation in the 
north, but usually two in the 
south. The larva enters the 
ground to pass the winter. 

If early 
varieties 



Fig. 120:-Adult of the Squash Borer. ^^ i^^ted 
Slightly enlarged. Original. 

as traps, 
the moths will lay on them rather than on winter 
varieties. All vines should be gathered and 
burned as soon as mature. Fall cultivation 
followed by deep spring plowing will kill many 
of the larvae in the soil or prevent the moths 
from emerging. Moist earth drawn over the 
vines at joints will induce the formation of ad- 
ditional roots, enabling the plant to withstand 
attack. The vine may be sht and the borers 
removed. 

The Potato Stalk-borer {Trichobaris trinotata Say) 

The potato stalk-borer is a small, yellowish- 
white grub, half an inch long, which bores in the 





Fig. 122. 



Adult of the Potato Stalk-borer. Enlarged 
and natural size. Original. 



Fig. 121. — Work of 
the Potato Stalk- 
borer. Original. 



136 



PESTS OF GARDEN AND FIELD CROPS 



stalks of potato plants, frequently killing the vines. Its work is 
evident usually in midsummer. The adult is a gray snout beetle, 
with three black spots at the hind end of its thorax. It lays eggs 
just under the surface of the vines, and the grubs work beyond 
the reach of poison. Fortunately, the adults remain in the stalks 
over winter, and the pest is easily checked for the next season by 
removing and destr^^ying the vines as soon as the crop of potatoes 
is harvested. Neighboring weeds also should be destroyed. 



The Lima Bean Stem-borer {Monoptilota nuhilella Hulst) 

In a few sections in the South 
the stalks of lima beans are at- 
tacked by a borer, which bur- 
rows inside and causes the for- 
mation of characteristic galls. 
The worm is bluish green, and 
nearly an inch long when full 
grown. There are probably two 
generations in the southern 
part of the insect's range. 

Winter is passed as larva or 
pupa in the soil. Fall plowing 
and cultivation will help to sup- 
press the insect. If stems show- 
ing the galls of the first genera- 
tion are removed and destroyed, 
the numbers of the second gen- 
eration should be materially 
reduced. 



The Hop-plant Borer {Hydrce- 
cia imma7iis Grt.) 

The hop-plant borer feeds at 
three different points in or on 
the vines in the course of its 




Fig. 123. — Work of 
the Lima Bean 
Stem-borer. Orig- 
inal. 




Fig. 124. — Work 
of the Hop-plant 
Borer. Original. 



GRUBS BORING IN STALK OR STEM 



137 




Fig. 125. — Adult of the Hop-plant 
Borer. Original. 



existence. Early in the season it bores inside the growing tips, 

causing them to turn down. It is now a slender green worm, 

marked with black dots. Soon it drops from the tips, enters the 

vine near the ground, and bores witliin at tliis point. At this stage 

it is reddish in color, dotted with 

black, and three fourths to an 

inch in length. After two or 

tln-ee weeks, it bores down and 

out, and feeds beneath the 

ground, just above the old roots, 

sometimes nearly cutting the vine 

off. It now reaches a length 

of two inches, is thick bodied, 

whitish, and marked with fine 

brown dots. 

A pupal stage is passed in the soil. Some of the adults emerge in 
the fall and some in the spring. 

Tips showing the work of the earlier stage should be pinched off 
and destroyed. The grubs working in the soil may be driven deeper 
to the old roots by pulling away the dirt for a few days, later heaping 
ashes around the vines. On the old roots they will do little damage. 

The Cabbage Curculio {Ceutorhynciis rapce Gyll.) 

A small snout beetle appears on cabbage plants early in the season, us- 
ually while the plants are stiU in the seed bed. The beetle is one eighth 
of an inch long and varies in color from gray to black. Its body is quite 
broad. Eggs are laid in the stalks, and a whitish grub tunnels 
within. Infested plants may droop over in their upper half, or break 
off in transplanting. The grub is full grown in three weeks, trans- 
forms in the soil, and the adults emerge a week later, disappearing 
after a few days. There is one generation annuallj^ 

Various wild plants, especially hedge mustard and wild pepper- 
grass, are native food plants and are preferred to cabbage. Use may 
be made of these as traps, destroying them as soon as the beetles have 
laid their eggs in them. An application of arsenate of lead or Paris 



138 



PESTS OF GARDEN AND FIELD CROPS 



green to the cabbages in the seed bed hkely will serve to poison enough 
of the adult beetles to reduce injury by the grubs. 



The Asparagus Miner {Agromyza smiplex Loew) 

Irregular mines are made just beneath the outer skin of asparagus 
stems. Frequently the surface will become ruptured and turn back, 
and beneath may be seen the tiny brown puparium, looking like a 

flaxseed. The larva which causes the 
injury is a footless maggot one fifth of 
an inch long, white, tapering to the head 
end. The adult is a small fly, rather hump 
backed, with a large head and prominent 
eyes. 




Fig. 126. — Work and pupa- 
rium of the Asparagus 
Miner. Enlarged. Orig- 
inal. 




Fig. 127. — Adult of the Asparagus Miner. 
Enlarged and natural size. Original. 

Badly infested stalks should be cut off 
or puUed up, and burned. Stalks that are 
being cut regularly for market will not 
show injury. A few plants may be left 
at this time as traps, and these destroyed. 

The Rhubarb Curculio {Lixus concavus 

Say) 

The stems of rhubarb sometimes are 
scarred and punctured by a snout beetle, 



ATTACKING SURFACE OF STALK OR STEM 



139 




Fig. 128. — The Rhubarb 
Curculio. Slightly en- 
larged. Original. 



three fourths of an inch long. It may be 
controlled by hand picking. The normal 
place of breeding is in the stems of dock, 
and this weed should be removed from the 
neighborhood of rhubarb. 



The Hessian- fly {Mayetiola destructor Say) 

Few insects have wrought greater dam- 
age than this pest in its periods of 
abundance. It is one of the prime enemies of our wheat-growing regions. 
The adult is a tiny, two-winged gnat, one tenth of an inch long. It 
emerges in the fall, at the time that winter 
wheat is just unfolding its leaves, and lays eggs 
on the upper surface of the leaves. The re- 
sulting maggot goes down to a point within 
the leaf sheath, feeds, and later transforms 
to a small, hard, brown object looking like a 
seed, and known as 
the "flaxseed." In 
spring a new lot of 
adults emerge from 
these ''flaxseeds," 
and at once lay eggs 
on the leaves of the 
young wheat as be- 
fore. The maggots 
which hatch from 
these eggs feed at the 
base of the leaf, caus- 
ing characteristic in- 
jury. An infested 
plant is stunted, 
shows no visible stem, and is darker than normal in color. If the 
infestation is severe, the plant is seriously injured or entirely destroyed. 
The summer is passed in the flaxseed stage, in the wheat stubble. 





Fig. 129. —Work and 
puparia of the Hessian- 
fly. Original, 



Fig. 130. — Adult of the 
Hessian-fly. Enlarged 
and natural size. Orig- 
inal. 



140 



PESTS OF GARDEN AND FIELD CROPS 



In the spring wheat sections the hfe history is similar, except that 
winter is passed as a flaxseed in the stubble, and there are two genera- 
tions in quick succession in summer. 

No direct remedies are known. Crop rotation is of some value, 
but the adults can fly and thus infest new fields. The most effective 
plan is to delay planting of wheat in the fall for 10 days to two weeks 
beyond the usual time. The young wheat plants will then not be 
above ground or of suitable size when the adults emerge, and usually 
injury is largely averted. 

Cutworms (Noctuidce) 
About the time that young plants in gardens are pushing through 
the soil they are found cut off even with the surface of the ground, 





Fig. 132. — Larvae of Noctiia clande- 
stina. Original. 



Fig. 131. — Work of 
Cutworms. Origi- 
nal. 




Fig. 133. 



Adult of Noctua clandestina. 
Original. 



CUTTING OFF ENTIRE PLANT 



141 



the wilted top usually lying near the beheaded root stalk. Corn and 
other field crops suffer the same fate. As a rule the worms them- 
selves are nowhere to be seen ; but if one removes the soil to a depth 
of an inch or two near a dead 
plant, one will likely find a dark, 
naked worm, lying curled up and 
motionless. 

There are many species. The 
worms differ in markings, but 
their work is much the same. 
They are the larvae of night-flying 
moths of the family Noduidoo. 
Their parents are on the wing in 
July and August, laying eggs in 
fields that are grown up to herb- 
age of almost any kind. A field 
that has been allowed to run to 
weeds is favorite ground. The young worms that hatch from these 
eggs feed for a few weeks in the fall, and then hibernate in the soil. 
In the spring they resume activity, and after the ground has been 
plowed and seeded, they are ready to destroy the first green plants 
that show up. 




Fig. 134. 



Larva of Agrotis ypsilon. 
Original. 




Fig. 135. — Adult oi Agrotis ypsilon. Original. 

In large areas, cultivate thoroughly in late summer, keeping the 
ground free of weeds, and plow deeply in the fall, following this with 
early cultivation in the spring. 



142 



PESTS OF GARDEN AND FIELD CROPS 




Fig. 136. — Adult of Noctua c-mgrum. 
Original. 



In the garden injury may 
be avoided by the use of 
poison bran mash in the 
spring, scattering it over 
the ground before the plants 
are due to come up. The 
worms will then be killed 
before they have done any 
damage. Tomatoes, cab- 
bages, and other large plants 
may be protected by fitting a collar of paper around the stem, 
setting it two or three inches into the ground, and letting the 
upper edge be three or four inches above the surface. 

Grasshoppers {Acrididce) 

Grasshoppers have been at times among the most destructive of 
pests on American farms. Almost every season finds them in exces- 
sive abundance and seriously injuring crops in some one of the states. 
At least half a dozen species have 
records of periodical devastation, 
but all are of such characteristic 
form, and their life histories are 
so similar, that it is unnecessary 
to attempt to recognize the va- 
rious species. 

The young appear early in 
summer. They have no wings, 
and are quite small, but other- 
wise they are much like the 
adults. They reach the winged 
stage in midsummer or later. Eggs are laid in the ground in pod- 
shaped masses, an inch or so below the surface. Pasture land, 
lanes, or places in undisturbed, close-growing vegetation of any 
kind are chosen for egg laying. Frequently large numbers are laid 
in alfalfa. The insect remains in the egg stage over winter. 




Fig. 



137. — Adult of Melanoplus fe/nur- 
ruhrum. Original. 



GRASSHOPPERS 



143 



When the insects have been abundant, all suitable breeding places 
should be deeply plowed in the fall. Alfalfa may be disked. In 
gardens or similar locations poison bran mash may be used, if poultry 
can be kept out. 

In field crops two methods of direct control are in general use. 
The insects may be poisoned, or they may be caught in so-called 
'' hopper-dozers." For wholesale poisoning a fairly satisfactory sub- 
stance is the home-made material known as the Criddle mixture. 
Take five pails of horse manure, dissolve two pounds of salt in a 
pail of water and stir in one pound of Pairs green or London purple, 
and moisten the manure with this. Scatter it broadcast through the 
field. Another and an effective material is poison bran mash. 




Fig. 138. — Kd\x\t ol Camnula'pellucida. Original. 



The hopper-dozer consists of a long, shallow, sheet-iron pan, the 
bottom covered with wet carpet or burlap and liberally dosed with 
kerosene. Along the back of the pan is fixed a shield of canvas about 
three feet high, and this also is wet with kerosene. The pan is drawn 
sidewise over the ground by a man at each end, or by horses. The 
grasshoppers jump as the pan reaches them, come in contact with the 
kerosene in the pan or on the shield, and are killed by it. The scheme 
is satisfactory only if put into use while the insects are still in their 
wingless stages. 

Certain specie? of grasshoppers develop the habit of migrating 
when excessively ?,bundant. In such cases direct remedial measures 
I are practically impossible. 



144 



PESTS OF GARDEN AND FIELD CROPS 



Blister-beetles {Meloidce) 

Swarms of rather large, long-legged beetles, black, gray, or striped 
black and yellow, with distinct heads and '^ necks " and elongated, 
straight-cut bodies, sometimes descend on field or garden crops and 





Fig. 139. — The Striped Blister- 
beetle. Original. 



Fig. 140. — The Ash-gray Blis- 
ter-beetle. Original. 



quickly destroy the foliage. They often do great damage to sugar 
beets, potatoes, and beans, or other legumes. There are several species, 
as noted below. 

The younger stages are spent in the soil, the larvae feeding in the 





Fig. 141. — Nuttall's Blister- 
beetle. Original. 



Fig. 142. — The Black Blis- 
ter-beetle. Original. 



egg clusters of grasshoppers. Emergence of the adult beetle takes 
place in the spring. 

The Striped Blister-beetle (Epicauta vittata Fab.) is black, marked 
with three distinct, longitudinal yellow stripes. It is common on 
potatoes and sugar beets, but often attacks other crops. 

The Ash-gray Blister-beetle {Macrobasis unicolor Kby.) is a smooth 




LARGE BEETLES EATING THE LEAVES 145 

gray in color. It is oftenest found on legumes, and sometimes on 
potatoes. 

The Gray Blister-beetle {Epicauta cinerea Fors.) is of the same 
general type. 

Nuttall's BHster-beetle {Cantharis nuttalli Say) is a handsome, shin- 
ing, deep blue in color and the largest species of the group. It ranges 
through the Western states, and is espe- 
cially destructive on beans and other 
legumes. 

The Black Blister-beetle {Epicauta 
pennsylvanica DeG.) is often destructive 
to potato vines. It is a shining black 
in color. 

The Buttercup Oil Beetle {Meloe an- Fig. 143. - The Buttercup Oil 

^. ,, . ON- ... ,. 1 . r. Beetle. Original. 

gusticoUis bay) is mjurious for briei 

periods. It is a deep, sliining, blue black in color, and has shortened 
wing covers. Often the abdomen is greatly enlarged. 

Blister-beetles may be poisoned by prompt and thorough applica- 
tions of Paris green or arsenate of lead, but they are apt to appear 
suddenly, and to do much damage before noticed. In field crops the 
beetles sometimes are driven away by a line of people armed with 
brush moving slowly across the field. 

The Colorado Potato-beetle {Leptinotarsa deceinlineata Say) 

Potato-beetles or '' bugs " need little description. For many years 
they have been omnipresent, and all who have raised potatoes or 
seen them growing will readily recognize the heavy-bodied beetle, 
three eighths of an inch long, with its yellow or orange wing covers 
marked with 10 black lines. (See frontispiece.) 

The young or larva is often known as a " slug," and after the season 
is well started is found in large numbers on the vines. It is dark 
red, becoming lighter as it grows older, and has a series of black spots 
down each side. Its head is quite small. The eggs are bright orange, 
and are found in masses on the under side of the leaves. 

The pest passes the winter as adult beetles under ground. They come 



146 



PESTS OF GARDEN AND FIELD CROPS 



^t. 


t:-^%..ii^^B 


. — . 



out from these quarters 
early in the spring, and 
begin laying eggs as soon 
as food plants are avail- 
able. Usually the over- 
wintering beetles live 
and continue laying 
eggs for a considerable 
period. The grub en- 
ters the ground to pu- 
pate, when it has be- 
come full grown. There 
are two generations an- 
nually. 

Poisoning by means 
of Paris green and hme, 
or lead arsenate, is the 
simplest and best 

Fig. 144. — Eggs of the Colorado Potato-beetle, remedy. Use a rather 
Slightly enlarged. Original. jj^avy dose and apply 

early, as soon as the potato tops are a few inches high, repeating 

as needed. 



The Three-lined Potato Beetle {Lem.a trilineata Oliv.) 

Injury by this species is about 
the same as that done by the 
Colorado potato-beetle. The 
eggs are laid along the midrib 
of the leaf. The larva covers 
itself with a mass of excre- 
ment. The adult is a hand- 
some beetle, its body striped 
with light yellow and black. 
Its length is a little more than 
one third of an inch. There 




Fig 



145. — The Three-hned Potato 
Beetle. Enlarged and natural size. 
Original. 



BEETLES AND GRUBS EATING THE LEAVES 



147 




Fig. 146. — The Larger Beet Leaf-beetle. 
Enlarged and natural size. Original. 



are two broods each season. The pest is easily killed by the 
application of Paris green or arsenate of lead. 

The Larger Beet Leaf-beetle (Monoxia pundicollis Say) 

Both the adult beetles and the larvae feed on the leaves of beets. 

Injury is begun by the beetles, which are one fourth of an inch long, 

brownish to black in color, each 

wing cover vaguely marked with 

an obscure lighter band. Eggs 

are laid on the leaves, and from 

these hatch the larvae, which 

add to the damage. The full- 
grown larva is one tliird of an 

inch long, rather robust, and 

nearly black in ground color. 

The segments are distinctly 

shown by low tubercles, the 

tops of which are marked with 

hght yellow, giving the larva a dotted appearance. The insect 

appears to breed normally on native wild plants. 

Its work may be checked by the 
prompt application of Paris green 
or arsenate of lead. 

The Bean Leaf-beetle {Ceratoma 
trifurcata Fors.) 

Black and yellow beetles, one 
sixth of an inch long, feed on the 
fohage of beans, cowpeas, and re- 
lated plants, eating holes in the 
leaves. The ground color of the 
insect is yellow or red, margined 
with black and with four black spots on its back. The larvae live on 
the roots of the plants. The insect hibernates as an adult in any 
suitable shelter. 




Fig. 147. — The Bean Leaf -beetle. 
Enlarged and natural size. Original. 



148 



PESTS OF GARDEN AND FIELD CROPS 



Prompt application of Paris green or arsenate of lead will check 
the pest. Appl}^ early before the bean pods are well formed. Clean- 
ing up rubbish in the fall is of value. The destruction of weeds that 
belong in the same botanical family is an additional remedial measure. 

The Bean Lady Beetle {Epilachna corrupta Muls.) 

In some of the Western states beans are subject to injury by tliis 

species. Early in the season the foliage is eaten by the adults, which 

have hibernated. These are fol- 
lowed by the larvae, and later a 
new generation of adults is at 
work. As soon as the bean pods 
appear they are attacked as well 
as the leaves. The larvae skele- 
tonize the leaves, working on the 
under side, while the adults de- 
vour the leaf tissue entire. 

The adult beetle is broadly oval, 
one tliird of an inch long, light 
brown in color, and marked with 
eight dots on each wing cover. 
The larva is about the same size, 

yellowish, and covered with short, branched spines. There is one 

generation annually. 

Arsenicals, either Paris green or arsenate of lead, will kill both larvae 

and adults. The apphcations must be made to the under side of the 

leaves. 

The Squash Lady Beetle {Epilachna horealis Fab.) 

Both the insect and its work are characteristic. The adult beetle 
is one third of an inch long, nearly as wide, yellowish to brownish in color, 
and marked with seven large black dots on each wing cover. In addition 
there are four small dots on the thorax. The eggs are yellowish, and are 
laid in clusters on the leaf. The larva is oval in shape, a half inch long, 
and covered with rather long, branching spines. The beetle marks 
out a circular area on a leaf and then feeds within this. The larva 




Fig. 148. —The Bean Lady Beetle 
Enlarged and natural size. Origi- 
nal. 



BEETLES AND GRUBS EATING THE LEAVES 149 







Fig. 149. 



Work of the Squash Lady Beetle. 
Original. 



Fig. 150. — Larva of the 
Squash Lady Beetle. 
Slightly enlarged. Orig- 
inal. 



feeds anj'-where on the 
leaf. Squashes and re- 
lated plants are at- 
tacked. Winter is 
passed as an adult. 
There is one generation 
annually. 

Eggs should be re- 
moved when found. 



Paris green or arsenate of lead may be used to poison the beetles 
and larvae. With each of the last two species adults are at work 
both in spring and in summer because of the hibernating habits. 




Fig. 151. — Adults of the Squash Lady Beetle. Original. 



150 PESTS OF GARDEN AND FIELD CROPS 

The Striped Cucumber Beetle {Diabrotica vittata Fab.) 

As soon as the tender leaves of melons, cucumbers, and squashes 
are above ground, a lot of yellow and black striped beetles, two fifths of 




Fig. 152. — The Striped Cucumber Beetle. Adults, natural size and 
enlarged. Original. 

an inch long, hunt them out and do their best to destroy them. The 
larvae eat the tender roots of the same plants on which the adults are 
seen ; and in addition the feeding of the adults is instrumental in 
spreading a bacterial wilt that often suddenly kills the vines. 



SMALL BEETLES INJURING LEAF AND STEM 151 

There is one brood of this species in the North, but in the South two 
generations are recorded. The adults hibernate in any convenient 
shelter or in the ground. 

Where possible, young plants should be protected with cloth or wire 
screen until they have got a start. Lacking this, it is wise to plant an 
excess of seed, thus allowing for the thinning that the pest will do. 

It is difficult to poison the beetles, because they will hunt out parts 
of the stem or leaves, or later the inside of the flowers, where the sur- 




FiG. 153. — Plants protected with cloth screens, to prevent injury 
by the Striped Cucumber Beetle. Original. 

face is not coated with a spray material. Nevertheless, considerable 
protection is afforded by spraying thoroughly with arsenate of lead, 
using 4 or 5 pounds to 50 gallons of water. 

Many repellents have been tried, but most are of little use when the 
beetles are numerous, and their effect seems to last only a short time. 
Probably the best is dry-slaked or air-slaked lime with which has been 
mixed flowers of sulphur. Fine road dust or tobacco dust will drive 
them away from the plants temporarily. 

Beans or squashes planted ahead of the main crop will in a measure 
protect the latter. Removal of crop remnants, and general cleaning 
up of the garden in the fall, will help to avert serious injury the next 
season. 



152 



FESTS OF GARDEN AND FIELD CROPS 




The Twelve-spotted Cucumber Beetle {Diabrotica 
duodecimpu7ictata Oliv.) 

This insect, in its larval stage, is known in the South as the southern 

corn root-worm, where it is a pest of corn and other field crops. 

In the central and northern re- 
gions injury by the adult beetle is 
more often noted, the crops at- 
tacked being cucumber, melon, 
squash, beets, cabbage — in fact, 
almost every sort of vegetable. 
The beetles are especially partial 
to the blossoming parts of the 
plant. 

The adult is easily recognized. 
It is one fourth of an inch long, 
broader toward the hind end, yel- 
lowish green 
in color, and 
ornamented 

with twelve black spots on its back. Its head 

is black. 

The adults hide away during the winter, and 

appear early in the spring. There are two 

generations in the North, and probably more 

in the South. 

Remedies for the adult beetle are the same 

as those for the striped cucumber beetle. 

The Asparagus Beetle (Criocens asparagi Linn.) 
Both the young shoots and the leafy tops of 
asparagus are attacked by the larva and the 
adult beetle of this species. The shoots are 
rendered unfit for use, and the injury to the 
tops weakens the plants. 



Fig. 154.— The Twelve-spotted Cu- 
cumber Beetle. Enlarged and natu- 
ral size. Original. 




Fig. 155. — Eggs of the 
Asparagus Beetle. 
Enlarged and natural 
size. Original. 



SMALL BEETLES AND GRUBS ATTACKING FOLIAGE 153 

The adult is one fourth inch long, blue black in ground color, its 
wing covers yellow, bordered and marked with dark blue, and its 
thorax red. It is active in habits, dodging around a stem when 




Fjg. 156. — The Asparagus Beetle. Larvse and adults natural 
size, aiid adult enlarged. Original. 

disturbed. The grub is three tenths of an inch long, grayish or olive, 
with a sliining black head. 

The beetles emerge from their hibernating quarters about the time 
that asparagus shoots are ready for the first cutting. Eggs are laid 
on the shoots, and later on the stems. The larva enters the ground 



154 



PESTS OF GARDEN AND FIELD CROPS 




Fig. 157. — Larva of the Asparagus 
Beetle. Enlarged and natural size. 
Original. 



to pupate. There are two to 
four generations annually. 

To control, permit a few 
shoots to grow up at once, 
and poison with Paris green the 
beetles and grubs on these. 
Collect the shoots desired for 
the table or market at frequent 
intervals. Fresh, air-slaked 
lime dusted on the grubs will 
kill them. 



The Twelve-spotted Asparagus Beetle {Crioceris duodecimpundata L.) 

Injury by this species to the young shoots is much the same as 
that due to the common asparagus beetle. Holes are dug and the 
surface is eaten both by the grubs and by the adult beetles. 
Later, when the tops are 
grown, the adults tend to 
feed largely on the substance 
of the berries. 

The adult beetle is one 
fourth inch long, orange in 
color, with six black dots on 
each wing cover. The grub 
is three tenths of an inch 
long, with yellowish body and 
brownish head. There are 
from two to four generations 
annually. 

Control is the same as that for the common asparagus beetle. 




Fig. 158. — The Twelve-spotted Aspara- 
gus Beetle. Enlarged and natural size. 
Original. 



Tortoise Beetles attacking Sweet Potatoes 

As soon as sweet potato plants are set out in the field they are sought 
out by odd httle insects known as tortoise beetles. Holes are eaten 



SMALL BEETLES AND GRUBS ATTACKING FOLIAGE 155 




Fig. 



in the leaves, and when the 

young or larvae get to work 

a few days later, the foliage 

may be pretty well destroyed. 
The adult beetles are broadly 

oval, flattened, and their backs 

bear some resemblance to a 

tortoise shell. The Two- 
striped Sweet Potato Beetle 

{Cassida bivittata Say) is one 

fourth of an inch long, and 

has two black stripes on each 

of its yellow wing covers. The 

Golden Tortoise Beetle (Copto- 

cycla bicolor Fab.) is larger 

and a bright, golden yellow. 

The Black-legged Tortoise 

Beetle (Cassida nigripes Oliv.) 

is five sixteenths of an inch long, and has gold wing covers, each 

bearing three black spots. 
The larvae of tortoise beetles are known as " peddlers," because 

they often carry a mass of excrement on two spines at the hind end, 

and elevate this over their 
backs. 

There is one generation a 
year. The adults hide away 
in warm, dry places. To con- 
trol, dip the plants before set- 
ting out in arsenate of lead 1 
pound to 8 or 10 gallons of 
water. The larvae may be 
killed by applying Paris green 
or arsenate of lead to the plants 
after setting. 



159. — Work of Tortoise Beetles on 
sweet potato. Original. 




Fig. 160. — A Tortoise Beetle, Coptocycla 
bicolor. Enlarged and natural size. 
Original. 



156 



PESTS OF GARDEN AND FIELD CROPS 



The Cucumber Flea-beetle {Epitrix cucumeris Harr.) 
Synonyms : The Potato Flea-beetle ; The Tomato Flea-beetle 

The leaves of potatoes and tomatoes, and sometimes those of 
cucumbers and related plants, are riddled by very small, black, active 
beetles wliich quickly jump and disappear when disturbed. Their 




Fig. 161. — The Cucumber Flea-beetle. Adults and work on potato 
leaf, natural size, and adult enlarged. Original. 



SMALL, ACTIVE FLEA-BEETLES INJURING FOLIAGE 157 



work gives the leaf the appearance of being shot full of small holes, 

though frequently only the upper surface is eaten off at each feeding 

place. The beetle is so 

small that its markings 

can be made out only 

under a hand lens. It 

measures one sixteenth of 

an inch long, is quite 

black, and has yellowish 

legs and antennae. 

The larvae are very 
slender, tiny worms, and 
live in the soil, feeding 
on the roots. When nu- 
merous on potatoes, they 
may cause the surface of 
the tubers to develop 
raised spots or ''pimples." 

The adults hibernate in rubbish. Their first generation is raised 
on weeds related to the potato, such as horse nettle and the like. 
There are two or three broods in a season. 

Bordeaux mixture combined with Paris green or arsenate of lead and 
applied as a spray is the best remedy. It will drive away most of the 
beetles, and those that remain will be poisoned. 




Fig. 162. — Potato injured by larvae of the 
Cucumber Flea- beetle. Original. 



The Pale-striped Flea-beetle (Sijstena toeniata var. blanda Say) 

The common name well describes this species. The adult is one 
eighth inch long, its thorax cream colored, and its wing covers striped 
with the same shade, alternating with yellow. 

Practically every kind of garden or field crop is attacked, including 
sugar beets, corn, tomatoes, melons, cabbages, turnips, cotton, and 
many others. The foliage of the plants is riddled with fine holes. 

The larvae feed on the roots of common weeds. The pest passes 
the winter as a rule in the larval stage, the adults appearing in large 
numbers in the early part of summer. There is one brood annually. 



158 



PESTS OF GARDEN AND FIELD CROPS 



Where feasible, apply arsenicals to 
the plants attacked, or Bordeaux 
mixture combined with arsenicals. 
Weeds should be destroyed in the fall. 

The Banded Flea-beetle {Systena 
tceniata Say) is similar in appear- 
ance, though darker, and of the same 
habits. 





r.G. 163. — The Pale-striped Flea-beetle. 
Enlarged and natural size. Original. 



Fig. 164. —Work of the 
Banded Flea-beetle. Orig- 
inal. 



The Striped Flea-beetle {Phyllotreta vittata Fab.) 

Cabbage, turnips, and related crops are preferred by this species 
of flea-beetle. The adults make numerous small holes in the leaves, 

and the slender, whitish larvae live in the 
soil, feeding principally on the roots of 
various weeds of the same family. The 
adult is one eighth of an inch long, black, 
each wing cover marked with a light, 
waving band. 

Paris green or arsenate of lead, either 

alone or in combination with Bordeaux 

mixture, may be used on turnip tops, or 

on cabbage that is not ready for market. 

On cabbage, until it is half-grown, add resin soap to the Paris green. 

After the plants are three fourths grown use repellents. 




FiG. 165. — The Striped Flea- 
beetle. Enlarged and nat- 
ural size. Original. 



SMALL, ACTIVE FLEA-BEETLES INJURING FOLIAGE 159 



The Western Cabbage Flea -beetle {Phyllotreta pusilla Horn.) 

This species is related to the preceding, and follows it closely in 
life history and habits. The adult is one twelfth of an inch long, 

dark green in color, without bands or 
other similar markings on its wings. 
Control is the same as for the preceding 
species. 





Fig. 166. — The Western Cab- 
bage Flea-beetle. Enlarged Fig. 167. — The Tobacco Flea-beetle. En- 
and natural size. Original. larged and natural size. Original. 



The Tobacco Flea-beetle {Epiirix parvula Fab.) 

A small, dark, active beetle, provided with strong hind legs that 
enable it to jump readily, injures the leaves of tobacco both in the seed 
bed and in the field by eating numerous small holes in them. If one 
of the beetles be examined closely, it will be found to have a darker 
band across its back, and its wing covers are finely pitted. 

The adults appear from their winter hiding places early in the spring. 
Eggs are laid on the ground or on the plants. The larvae live in the 
ground, feeding on small roots. 

Seed beds that are closely covered with cloth will not be injured. 
The adult beetles may be killed by thorough spraying with arsenate 
of lead or Paris green. 



The Spinach Flea-beetle {Disonycha xanthomekena Dalm.) 

A much larger species of flea-beetle commonly attacks spinach, 
and is often a serious pest of sugar beets. The adult is one fourth 
of an inch long, with yellow thorax and shining blue wing covers. 



160 



PESTS OF GARDEN AND FIELD CROPS 




The larvae of tliis species feed 
on the leaves. They are one 
fourth inch long when mature, 




Fig. 168. — Work of the Spinach 
Flea-beetle. Original. 



Fig. 169. — The Spinach Flea-beetle. 
Enlarged and natural size. Original. 



rather thick bodied, grayish in 
color or sometimes dark purplish. 
On each segment are rows of 
raised tubercles. There are two 
broods in the course of the summer, the adults hibernating. The 
use of Paris green to poison the larvae and adults, and the destruc- 
tion of weeds in the fall and 
spring, are the remedies. 

The Triangular Flea-beetle 
{Disonycha triangularis Say) 
is about the same size as the 
preceding, and has the same 
feeding habits. Its thorax is 
marked with three black dots 
arranged in the form of a tri- 
angle. 

The life history is similar 
to that of the preceding, and the same remedies will apply. 




Fig. 170. — The Triangular Flea-beetle 
Enlarged and natural size. Original. 



SMALL, ACTIVE FLEA-BEETLES INJURING FOLIAGE 161 



The Sweet Potato Flea-beetle {Chcetocnema confinis Cr.) 

Soon after sweet potato plants are set in the field they begin to show 
the characteristic work of the sweet potato flea-beetle. Narrow lines 
are gouged out on the surface of the leaf, at first following parallel 

to the veins, but later running 
in any direction. At the 
same time the beetles them- 
selves will be noticed in in- 
creasing numbers. They are 
tiny, active, bronze-colored 





Fig. 172. — The Sweet Potato 
Flea-beetle. Enlarged and nat- 
ural size. Original. 

insects, one sixteenth of an 
inch long. 

In tliree or four weeks the 
beetles practically all disap- 
pear, having migrated to wild 
plants of related species . The 
only injury is at the beginning 
of the season. 
Dip the plants in arsenate of lead when setting them out, immersing 
the tops but not the roots. Use 1 pound of lead arsenate to 8 or 
10 gallons of water. In addition, spray the plants with arsenate 
of lead about ten days later, to protect new foliage. Plants that are 
3et out late will escape serious injury. 



Fig. 171. 



Work of the 8weet Potato Flea- 
beetle. Original. 




162 PESTS OF GARDEN AND FIELD CROPS 

The Hop Flea-beetle {Psylliodes punctulata Melsh.) 

Leaves of hops, sugar beets, and some other plants are attacked by 
very small, active beetles, wliich feed at first on the tender shoots and 
buds and later eat holes m the leaves. The adult is about one tenth 
of an inch long, shining black, its upper surface marked with many 
minute pits in regular rows. 

The larva is slender, whitish, and lives in the ground. There are 
two generations in the hop regions of the 
north Pacific coast. The insect hibernates 
as an adult. 

On sugar beets control is not easy. Bor- 
deaux acts as a fairly effective repellent. A 
fair proportion of beetles may be poisoned by 
apptying arsenicals. 
Fig. 173. — The Hop Flea- Where the beetles appear suddenly in de- 
beetle. Enlarged and gtructive swarms on hops, their numbers may 
natural size. Original. ^ ' 

be reduced materially by brushing them from 

the vines and catching them on sticky shields made by stretching cloth 
over light frames and coating the surface with tar. Banding the 
vines and poles with tanglefoot before the adults first appear will 
largely protect the vine^, since the adults seem to follow the habit of 
crawUng up the vines instead of flying. 



The Alfalfa Leaf-weevil {Phytonomus posticus Fab.) 

AlfaKa throughout the Western states is seriously threatened by this 
pest, which is native to Europe and Asia and has accidentally been 
introduced into this country. 

The plants are injured both by the adult weevils and by their young 
or grubs. Depredations l^egin in early spring, when the beetles come 
out from their winter quarters and puncture the young stems of alfalfa 
to make places for depositing their eggs. Shortly the grubs hatch 
and begin feeding on the tender leaves and the crown of the plant. 
Transformation to the adult stage begins in June, and later the beetles 



SNOUT-BEETLES AND GRUBS EATING LEAVES 163 

swarm on the plants, eating the freshly expanded leaves and gnawing 
the surface of stems in such way as to kill the growth above. 




Fig. 174. — The Alfalfa Leaf-weevil. En- 
larged and natural size. Original. 




Fig. 175. — Pupa of the Alfalfa 
Leaf-weevil. Enlarged and 
natural size. Original. 



The adult is one eighth to three sixteenths of an inch long, and when 
freshly emerged is brown. It grows darker in a few days. Its body is 
covered with black and 
gray hairs, giving it a 
mottled appearance. 
The grub is one fourth 
inch long, tapering toward 
each extremity, and has 
a light stripe down its 
back. 

Remedial measures 
thus far devised include : 
thorough disking early 
in the spring so as to 
induce quick, \agorous 
growth of the plants; 
the use of a spike-tooth 

harrow combined with a ^i^- !''''• ~ Feed- 
, 11 . T , 1 ing punctures of 
brush drag immediately ^^^ ^^^^^^ Leaf- 
following the first cutting weevil. Original. 



■ n 


1 f -r 




1 


i 


1 





Fig. 176. — Egg puncture 
and work of the Alfalfa 
Leaf-weevil. Original. 



164 



PESTS OF GARDEN AND FIELD CHOPS 




Fig. 178. — The Clover Leaf-weevil. Work on clover leaves. 
Adult enlarged to twice natural size. Original. 

of hay, so as to knock off and kill the grubs ; l^reaking up old alfalfa 

fields, not allowing a field to 

remain more than six years ; and 

scrupulous cleaning up of all 

rubbish or other hiding places 

in the fall. 

The Clover Leaf-weevil {Phy- 
tonomus pundatus Fab.) 

In early spring the leaves of 
clover and alfalfa show the 





Fig. 179. — Cocoons ot the Clover Fig. 180. — Clover head deformed by 
Leaf-weevil. Slightly enlarged. work of the Lesser Clover Leaf-weevil. 

Original. Original. 



SNOUT-BEETLES AND GRUBS EATING LEAVES 105 



characteristic work of 

the larvae of the clover 

leaf -weevil. The grubs 

themselves are not apt 

to be seen, for they 

work only at night and 

lie concealed close to 

the base of the plant 

during the daytime, 

but the edges of the 

leaves will be found 

eaten out in regular 

scallops. The full- 
grown larva is a half 

inch long, dusky green, 

with a lighter stripe 

down the middle of 

the back. 

In July or August 

the adult beetle is to 

be found, feeding on 

the leaves of the plants. It is one third of an inch long, dark brown 

in color but lighter on the sides, and covered with short hairs. 

Eggs are soon laid by the 
beetles, the young grubs feeding 
for a short time and then hiber- 
nating near the plants just 
below the surface of the soil. 
No direct measures of con- 
trol are feasible. Badly in- 
fested fields should be plowed 
and seeded to some other crop. 
Damage is seldom serious until 

'"'':. '^'•7'^^' ^"T P«7^L^^^-^'^^- a field has been in clover for 
vil. Enlarged and natural size. Urig- 

inal. two years. 




Fig. 181. 



Larva and work of the Lesser Clover 
Leaf-weevil. Original. 




166 



PESTS OF GARDEN AND FIELD CROPS 



Large numbers of the grubs 
often die from a fungous dis- 
ease, and may be seen coiled 
around the stems near the top. 
Cattle eating clover on which 
many of these dead larvae 
are present, are apt to be 
mildly poisoned. 

The Lesser Clover Leaf-weevil 

(Phytonomus nigrirostis Fab.) 

Small holes are eaten in the 
young and tender leaves of 
clover, and later, at the bloom- 
ing period, the inner parts of 
the heads are destroyed by a 
tiny grub, the immature stage of a small, greenish snout beetle. 




Fig. 183. — Cocoon of the Lesser Clover 
Leaf-weevil in clover head. Enlarged. 
Original. 




Fig. 184. — Clover leaves showing characteristic work of 
the Lesser Clover Leaf-weevil. Original. 

The beetle spends the winter in rubbish or other shelter. Emergence 
begins with warm weather, and egg-laying continues for several weeks. 
There is only one generation annually. 

No direct remedial measures are known. 



SNOUT BEETLES EATING THE LEAVES 



167 



The Flavescent Clover-weevil {Sitones Jlavescens Marsh.) 

Occasionally the leaves of clover are eaten by a brownish snout 
beetle, three sixteenths of an inch in length, its body rather thickly 
covered with short hairs. The larvse w^ork in the softer parts 

of the stems. The insect hi- 
bernates as a larva. Dusting 
or spraying with Paris green 
or arsenate of lead will kill the 
beetles. 




Fig. 185. — Work of the Flavescent Clover- 
weevil. Original. 



Fig. 186. — The Imbricated Snout 
Beetle. Enlarged and natural size. 
Original. 



The Imbricated Snout Beetle (Ejnccerus imhricatus Say) 

Practically all species of garden and field crops, and sometimes the 
buds or foliage of tree or bush fruits, may be attacked by this insect. It 
is a rather large snout beetle, five eighths of an inch long, its wing cov- 
ers banded in zigzag pattern with gray and hght brown. The snout is 
broad and short. The larva lives in the ground. The adults cannot 

fly. 

The beetles may be poisoned by promptly applying arsenate of 
lead or Paris green. 



168 PESTS OF GARDEN AND FIELD CROPS 




Fig. 187. — harxa, oi Phlegethoiitius sexta. Original. 

Tobacco or Tomato Worms {Phlegethontius sexta Joh., and Phlege- 

thontius quinquemaculata Haw.) 

Large, naked, green worms, armed with a curved horn near the hind 

end, eat the leaves of tomato and tobacco. There are two species. 

P. quinquemaculata has eight V-shaped, hght-colored markings on 




Fig. 188. — Adult oi Phlegethontius sexta. Slightly reduced. Original. 



LARGE, NAKED WORMS EATING THE LEAVES 169 

each side of its body ; P. sexta has only seven markings instead of eight, 
and these are merely obhque hnes. Either form is found to some 
extent both North and South. The full-grown worm 
is often 3 inches long. The adult is a large, strong- 
flying moth, seen in evenings. 

When the worm has completed its 
growth, it enters the soil to a depth 
of 4 or 5 inches, and makes a cell. 
In the South worms that mature early 
will emerge in the latter part of the 
same summer, thus giving a second 
generation. Emergence of the adult 
moths begins in June, but continues 
for fully two months. A large pro- 
portion of the adults emerge rather 
late than early, and the result is that 
worms are most numerous in August. 
Hand picking is universally prac- 
ticed. The worms may be poisoned 
by dusting lightly with Paris green or arsenate of lead. The moths 
may be killed by placing a few drops of arsenide of cobalt in the flowers 
of jimson, which they frequent. Prepare by mixing arsenide of cobalt, 





Fig. 189. — 
Pupa of Phlc- 
gethontius sex- 
ta. Slightly 
reduced. Orig- 
inal. 



Fig. 190. — Pu- 
pa of Phlegethon- 
tius quinquernac- 
ulata. Slightly 
reduced. Orig- 
inal. 




Fig. 191. — Adult of Phlegethontius quinquemaculata. Slightly reduced. 

Original. 



170 



FESTS OF GARDEN 'AND FIELD CROPS 



1 ounce, water 1 pint, and molasses or honey to sweeten. Fall plow- 
ing will kill large numbers of the larvse in the soil. 



'^mm 



Fig. 192. —The Celery Caterpillar. Original. 

The Celery Caterpillar (Papilio polyxenes Fab.) 

Leaves of celery, parsnips, and other plants of the same family 
are eaten by a large, naked worm, bright green or yellow, and strikingly 




Fig. 193. — Adult of the Celery Caterpillar. Slightly reduced. Original. 

banded with velvet black. The adult is commonly known as the 
black, swallow-tail butterfly. There are two generations in the North, 
and three or four in the Southern states. 

Usually the worms are easily controlled by knocking them from the 
leaves and crushing them. When excessively abundant, they may be 



NAKED WORMS EATING THE LEAVES 



171 



killed by applying arsenicals, using either arsenate of lead or Paris 
green. 

The Zebra-caterpillar {Mamestra picta Harr.) 

A conspicuous, naked caterpillar, two inches or more long when 
full grown, feeds on 2;ar(len crops of various sorts, especially beets. 




Fig. 194. — The Zebra-caterpillar. Larva and adult. Original. 

spinach, celery, and peas. The body is yellow, with a black stripe down 
the back, and another down each side. The head is red. There are two 
generations, the first feeding in early summer and the second in the fall. 
The species hibernates as a pupa. Hand picking is the usual remedy, 
but they may be poisoned by liberal doses of arsenate of lead or Paris 
green. 

The Striped Garden Caterpillar (Mamestra legitima Grote) 
This species closely resembles the related zebra-caterpillar. It 
may be distinguished from the other by its darker color and the fact 
that the lateral stripes are divided into two portions, the upper lighter 
than the lower. The feeding habits, life round, and means of control 
are the same as for the zebra-caterpillar. 



172 



PESTS OF GARDEN AND FIELD CROPS 



The Army Worm (Leucania unipuncta Haw.) 

In occasional seasons naked, dull-striped worms, related to the 
common cutworms, become abnormally abundant, march from field 

to field, and de- 
vour corn, wheat, 

oats, and other 

related plants. 

Individuals of 

this species are in 

our fields every 

year, but we do 

not particularly 

note their pres- 
ence until they 

reach their times 

of unusual abun- 
dance, abandon 

their normal 

habits of remain- 
ing concealed 

during daylight 

and feeding only 

at night, and in 

their search for 

food form the 

devastating 

''armies." The 

full-grown worm 

is about 1 J inches 
Fig. 195. — Larva and work of long, dark in gen- 
the Army Worm. Slightly en- eral color, with 
larged. Original. ,, n • i 

three yellowish 

stripes down its back and a stripe down each side, 
stage of a dull, brownish moth. 





Fig. 196. — Work of 
Army Worms on tim- 
othy heads. Original. 



It is the younger 



i 



NAKED WORMS EATING THE LEAVES 



173 




Fig. 197. — Adult of the Army Worm. 
Original. 



The winter is passed as half-grown larva) in the ground. In the 
spring these larvae transform, moths emerge, and in a few weeks another 
generation of worms is at work. 
It is this generation that is apt 
to reach such numbers as to 
prove a serious pest. In the 
North there are three broods in 
a season ; in the South five or 
six. Normally the insect is held 
down to moderate numbers by 
its natural enemies. 

When the worms reach ex- 
cessive abundance and begin to travel from one field to another, 
invasion may be stopped by plowing three or four furrows, and main- 
taining a thick dust in these if possible. As worms collect in the 
furrows they may be killed with a drag, or by sprinkling them 
with kerosene or kerosene emulsion. Another measure sometimes 
advisable is to apply a heavy dose of Paris green to a strip 
a few yards wide on the side of the field that is threat- 
ened. Or poison bran mash 
may be used. It is advis- 
able to plow in the fall fields 
in which the worms have 
been numerous in late sum- 
mer, in order to destroy as 
many of the hibernating 
larvae as possible. 




Fig. 198. —The Fall Army Worm, 
enlarged. Original. 



;iighJy 



The Fall Army Worm {LapJnjgma frugiperda S. and A.) 
This species is related to the " army worm," but whereas the latter 
reaches its periods of occasional destructive abundance in the early 
summer months, the fall army worm becomes a pest in the latter part 
of the summer, usually in August. The full-grown worm is dark in 
color, about 1| inches long, and has a yellowish stripe down the 
middle of its back. Within this stripe, on each segment, are four 



174 



FESTS OF GARDEN AND FIELD CROPS 



small dark dots. There is a rather dark stripe down each side of 

the body. 

Frequently this species is abundant without developing the instinct 

of marching in " armies." It feeds on alfalfa, sugar beets, and many 

other field and garden crops. Winter 

is passed as pupa in the ground. 
There are two broods in the North ; 
four in the South. 

Control depends on the nature and 
extent of the crop attacked. In 
limited areas apply arsenicals. In 
large fields the worms may be killed 
by crushing them with a heavy roller. 

Fall plowing and disking, combined with cultivation where feasible, 

will kill many of the overwintering forms. 




Fig. 199.— Adult of the Fall 
Army Worm. Original. 



The Beet Army Worm (Laphygma exigua Won.) 
In some of the Western states this species has periods of disastrous 
abundance on sugar beets. Its invasions occur at the same time as 
those of the fall army 
worm. The larva 
resembles the latter, 
but lacks the distinct 
black dots. On each 
side there is a dark 
stripe, along the 
lower edge of which 
is a series of white 
dots. The winter is 
passed as an adult 
moth. There are 
two broods in the summer, and apparently the normal food plants 
are certain weeds. Clean culture is indicated, in order to keep down 
the weeds on which the species may live in spring or fall. The 
worms may be poisoned by applying Paris green or arsenate of lead. 




Fig. 200. —Adult of the Beet Army Worm. 
Slightly enlarged. Original. 



NAKED WORMS EATING THE LEAVES 



175 



f 


"^ 


y 


J 



The Cotton Worm {Alabama argillacea Hbn.) 
Dark greenish caterpillars, striped with black, eat the leaves and 

tender shoots of cotton, attack beginning in a small way early in 

the season, and increasing as 

additional generations of the 

pest are developed. When 

quite small, the caterpillars are 

light green, marked with dark 

spots, and eat only the under 

surface of the leaf, but they 

soon change to the coloring 

noted above, and their work 

is extended to include all of 

the leaf tissue. 

The adult is a brownish moth expanding somewhat over an inch, and 

invades the Southern states, from Mexico, or points farther south. It 

is abundant only at rare intervals. Eggs are laid on the leaves, and the 

pupal stage takes place in a folded 
leaf on the plant. There are three 
to seven generations annually. 

The application of arsenicals 
to poison the worms is effective. 
The ordinary practice is to 
apply dry Paris green, dusting 

Fig. 202. -Adult of the Cotton Worm. ^^ ^^ tlie plants by means of 
Original. bags tacked to a pole. 



Fig. 201. — The Cotton Worm. Original. 




The Alfalfa Caterpillar {Eurymus eurytheme Boisd.) 
The leaves of alfalfa, and sometimes of other plants, are eaten by a 

dark green caterpillar, occasionally abundant enough to be destructive. 

The worm is naked, one inch long, has a white stripe down each side, 

obscurely broken by small red and black dots, and sometimes dark 

stripes down the middle of its back. 
The adult is a yellow butterfly, expanding about two inches, its wings 



176 



PESTS OF GARDEN AND FIELD CROPS 



bordered with black. In the southwest there are four generations 
annually. 

Where attack is severe, fields should be mowed. Alfalfa that is 
pastured is much less liable to injury. 




Fig. 203. — Adult of the Imported Cabbage Worm. Original. 



The Imported Cabbage Worm {Pontia rapce Sch.) 

A velvety green worm, an inch to an inch and a half long, eats large, 
irregular holes in the leaves of cabbage or cauliflower, and disfigures 
the heads by deposits of excrement. When examined closely, the worm 

is seen to have a faint ^''ellow 
stripe down the center of its 
back. 

The adult is the familiar 
white " cabbage butterfly," 
often observed hovering over 
fields of cabbage or cauliflower 
all through summer. There 
are from one to four or five 
Fig. 204.-The Imported Cabbage Worm, ^roods, according to the section 
Larva on leaf. Original. where found. 




SMALL, NAKED WORMS EATING THE LEAVES 177 



W^ 


w^ <^^| 


^K^^k 





Fig. 205. — Adult of the Southern Cabbage Worm. 
Original. 



Arsenicals may be used safely on cabbages until they are half grown. 
An effective spray is Paris green to which has been added resin soap 
*' sticker," so that it will not run off the leaves. Directions for making 
the resin soap mixture 
are given elsewhere in 
this book. Poison 
bran mash, as pre- 
pared for cutworms, 
is effective, and may 
be used safely until 
the plants are nearly 
full grown. Hellebore 
is available on plants 
ready for market. 

The Southern Cab- 
bage Worm {Pontia 
protodice Boisd.) is a closely related species with similar habits. 

The Cross-striped Cabbage Worm {Evergestis rimosalis Guen.) 

The larva of this 
species is bluish in 
color, about three 
fifths of an inch long, 
and has numerous 
narrow stripes of 
black across its back. 
It feeds on cabbage 
heads in the same 
manner as the com- 
mon cabbage worm. 
The adult expands 
about one inch, and 
is light yellowish. 




Fig. 206. — The Diamond-back Moth. Enlarged and 

natural size. Original, 
wings marked with black or brown. 



the margins of its 



178 PESTS OF GARDEN AND FIELD CROPS 

The normal range of this species is through the Gulf states and neigh- 
boring territory. Remedies are the same as for the imported cabbage 
worm. 

The Diamond-back Moth (Plutella maculipennis Curt.) 

Tiny active green worms, scarcely more than a quarter of an inch long 
when full grown, eat small holes in the leaves of cabbage, and occasion- 
ally become so numerous that notable damage is done. The adult is a 
delicate moth. There are two or three generations in the North, and 
half a dozen or more in the South. 

The remedies given for the imported cabbage worm will readily hold 
this species in check. 

The Cabbage Looper {Autographa brassicce Riley) 
At the same time that the imported cabbage worm is found feeding 
on cabbage heads this species is likely to be observed at similar mis- 





FiG. 207. — The Cabbage Fig. 208.— Adult of the Cabbage 

Looper. Original. Looper. Original. 

chief. It is a light green worm, with a faint whitish stripe down each 
side, and moves with a looping movement, often resting with the middle 
of its body elevated. 

Remedies are the same as for the imported cabbage worm. 

The Celery Looper {Plusia simplex Guen.) 

Occasionally this species becomes abundant enough to be a pest, 
destroying the leaves of celery. It is a smooth-bodied caterpillar, and 



LOOPERS, OR MEASURING WORMS 



179 



moves with a looping gait. On 
each side of its body is a row of 
dark dots or rings. Hibernation 
takes place as a half-grown cater- 
pillar. There are three broods 
annually. The pest may be 
checked by the use of arsenicals, 
preferably Paris green and lime, 
which can be washed from the 
leaves when the stalks are ready 
to use. 




Fig. 209. 



■Adult of the Celery Looper. 
Original. 



The Northern Grass Worm {Drasteria erechtea Cramer) 

Clover and grasses sometimes are damaged by a fairly large "meas- 
uring worm," which eats the leaves. When full grown the worm is 
1| inches long, striped with 
gray and brown, and has 
the habit of moving with a 







Fig. 210.— The Northern Grass 
Worm. Original. 



Fig. 211. 



-Adult of the Northern Grass 
Worm. Original. 



looping gait. - It transforms in a nest made by drawing leaves to- 
gether with silk. There are several generations in the course of a 
summer. The best means of control in periods of excessive abun- 
dance is fall plowing. 



The Hop Snout-moth {Hijyena hiimuli Harr.) 
The fohage of hops is attacked by green caterpillars an inch long 
when full grown. The body is dotted with black, there is a dark stripe 



180 



PESTS OF GARDEN AND FIELD CROPS 



down the center of the back, bordered with lighter, narrow lines and a 
similar light line on each side of the body. When crawling, the caterpillar 
raises the body slightly in 
the middle. There are two 
broods annually, the first 









Fig. 212. —Larva of the Hop 
Snout-moth. Original. 



Fig. 213. 



The Hop Snout-moth. Shghtly 
enlarged. Original. 



in spring and the second in midsummer. The species hibernates as 
an adult moth. Spraying with arsenicals will readily control the pest. 



Sawflies on Wheat 

Rarely the larvae of 
two or three species of 
sawflies are found feed- 
ing on wheat, eating 
the leaves, gnawing into 
the stems, or cutting 
off the heads. In the 
species Dolerus collaris 
Say and Dolerus arven- 
sis Say, the larvae are 
dark gray, cylindrical, 
and have 22 legs. In 
the species Pachyne- 
ynatus extensicornis 
Nort., the larva is 
greenish, with a yellow 
head, and has 20 legs. 




Fig. 214. — Work of Endelomyia rosce. Original, 



HAIRY CATERPILLARS EATING THE LEAVES 



181 



The papal stage is passed in the soil. The only means of control avail- 
able is deep fall plowing. 

Rose Slugs 

Three species of '' slugs," the larvae of sawflies, commonly infest the 
foliage of roses in this country. The surface of the leaves may be 
skeletonized, as with the native American species, Endelomyia rosw 
Harr. ; or holes may be eaten in the leaves, as with an imported species, 
the Bristly Rose Slug, Cladius pecti- 
nicornis Fourer ; or the larva may 
attack the edge of the leaf, eating 
out large sections, as with another 
imported species, the Coiled Rose 
Slug, Emphytus cinctus L. 

Either arsenate of lead or Paris 
green will readily poison the slugs. 
Or, they may be dislodged by a p,^. 215. -The Yellow-bear Cater- 
strong stream of water. pillar. Original. 




The Yellow-bear Caterpillar {Diacrisia virginica Fab.) 

Rather large and hairy caterpillars attack the leaves of a great 
variety of vegetables as well as many kinds of weeds. Usually they 

are not abundant enough 
to do serious injury. A full- 
grown caterpillar is 2 inches 
long. The hairs arise in 
tufts on the back and sides, 
and vary from light yellow 
to brown. The adult is a 
light-colored moth, expand- 
ing 1| to If inches, marked 
with a few small dark 
dots. There are two gen- 
erations, the second lot of 
caterpillars appearing in August or September. 
Hand picking will suffice to control this insect when present in moder- 




FiG. 216.— Adult of the Yellow-bear Cater- 
pillar. Original. 



182 



PESTS OF GARDEN AND FIELD CROPS 




Fig. 217. — The Salt-marsh Caterpillar. Original. 




ate numbers. When very abundant, spray with Paris green and Hme, 
making the dose quite heavy as the caterpillars are resistant. 

The Salt-marsh Cater- 
pillar, Estigmene acroea Dru., 
is another hairy caterpillar 
closely paralleling the above 
in appearance and habits. 
Its body is darker, and 
there are yellow markings 
on each side. 

The Hedgehog Cater- 



FiG. 218. — Adult of the Salt- 
marsh Caterpillar. Original. 

pillar, Isia Isabella S. and 
A., is thickly covered with 
close-cropped soft hairs, 
brownish red along the 
middle of its body and black 
at either end. 

Control of these two 
species is the same as for 
the yellow-bear caterpillar. 

Neither is apt to be abun- 
dant enough to be a serious 
pest. 




Fig. 219. 



The Hedgehog Caterpillar. 
Original. 



i 



WEBWORMS EATING THE LEAVES 



183 




Fig. 220. — Adult of the Hedgehog Caterpillar. Original. 

The Saddle-back Caterpillar {Sihine stimulea Clem.) 

This is a short, broad caterpillar, distinctl}^ spin3^ There are two 

especially long spines at each end. The bod}' is dark at either end, 

light green in the middle, and in the center of the green area is a dark, 

oval spot. The spines cause irritation if they come in contact with the 





Fig. 221.— The Saddle-back 
Caterpillar. Original. 



Fig. 222. —Adult of the Saddle-back 
Caterpillar. Original. 



skin. Care should be taken not to handle the caterpillar or to touch it 
inadvertently. 



The Garden Webworm (Loxostege similalis Gn.) 

Corn and cotton, and sometimes beets or garden crops, are invaded by 
hordes of yellowish worms, one half to three fourths of an inch long, 
marked with many small, dark dots. They spin webs over the plant and 
skeletonize the leaves. The pest appears early in the season, having 
migrated from pigweed, which is the normal food plant, or from alfalfa. 



184 



PESTS OF GARDEN AND FIELD CROPS 



on which the first generation often is raised. There are from three 

to five generations annually. The adult is a yellowish moth, 

expanding three fourths of an inch. 

Winter is passed as larva or pupa in 
the soil. 

In garden or small areas, the pest 
may be controlled by prompt appli- 
cation of Paris green or arsenate of 
lead. Fall plowing will help for the 
next season. Alfalfa should be well 

disked. No pigweed should be allowed to grow in or near the 

garden or field. 




Fig. 223. — The Garden Web- 
worm. Original. 



The Sugar-beet Webworm {Loxostege stidicalis Linn.) 

The work of this species is practically identical with that of the garden 
webworm. Recently it has developed into a serious pest of sugar beets 
in some of the Western states. The larva is an inch long when full grown, 
brownish in color, with a narrow dark stripe edged with white down the 





Fig. 224.— The Sugar-beet Web- 
worm. Original. 



Fig. 225. — Adult of the Sugar-beet 
Webworm. Original. 



middle of its back, and a light stripe down each side. There are 
numerous dots over the surface of its body. It webs up the fohage 
as it works. 

Winter is passed in a silk cocoon in the soil. The moths emerge in 
the spring and lay eggs on the leaves of pigweed and alfalfa. There is a 
second generation in July and a third in August. It is the last that is 
usually most injurious to sugar beets. 



WEBWORMS EATING THE LEAVES 



185 



Late fall plowing will break up the winter cells in the soil. Paris 
green or arsenate of lead may be used as a direct means of control. 
The poisons should be applied promptly, at the first sign of the presence 
of the pest. 

The Southern Beet Webworm {Pachyzanda bipufidalis Fab.) 

In the South a webworm, similar in habits to the common garden 
webworm, has been found feeding on beets. The full grown worm i? 
three fourths of an inch long, slender, dark green in color. The adult is a 
yellowish moth, expanding one inch. There are at least four generations 
annually. To control, apply arsenate of lead or Paris green, either 
dry or as a spray, as soon as the worms are first observed. The 
poisons should be appHed promptly to be effective. 

The Cabbage Webworm (Hellula undalis Fab.) 

In the Southern states cabbages, turnips, and related crops are dam- 
aged by a small, striped caterpillar, which spins webs in the leaves for 





Fig. 226. — The Cabbage 
Webworm. Original. 



Fig. 227. — Adult of the Cabbage; 
Webworm. Original. 



shelter, feeding exposed, but retiring to the webs when resting. When 
full grown, the worm is half an inch long, yellowish in ground color, and 
ornamented with five narrow stripes down its body. Injury is most 
apt to occur in late summer, on young plants set out for fall crops. 
Arsenicals may be used to poison the caterpillars, since they are not 
hidden in their webs when feeding. Either Paris green or arsenate of 
lead is effective. 



186 



PESTS OF GARDEN AND FIELD CROPS 



The Celery Leaf-tier, or Greenhouse Leaf-tier {Phlydoenia ferrugalis 

Hbn.) 

A variety of garden and field crops including celery, beets, tobacco, 
and others are damaged by this insect. In addition it is injurious on 
plants grown under glass, especially roses, carnations, and chrysanthe- 
mums. 

The larvse usually bend a part of a leaf over on the rest, or fasten two 
leaves together with silk, feeding within. They are whitish caterpillars, 
with a green stripe down the middle of the back. The head is light 
brownish, and is marked with dark dots. When mature, the caterpillar is 





Fig. 228. — The Celery Leaf - 
tier. Larvse. Original. 



Fig. 229.— Adult of the Celery Leaf - 
tier. Original. 



three fourths of an inch long. There are two or three generations out- 
doors, and an indefinite number in greenhouses. 

Since the caterpillars feed for the most part concealed, poisons must 
be applied early in order to be at all effective. Paris green or arsenate 
of lead may be used. Hand picking is advisable wherever it can 
be practiced economically. 



The Clover-hay Worm {Hypsopygia costalis Fab.) 

Late in winter the lower layers of clover hay in stack or mow often are 
found matted together with silk. When the hay is turned over, active 
wriggling worms are dislodged. In spring the silk cocoons of the pupse 
will be observed, here and there in the mass. 

The adult, a small moth expanding less than an inch, emerges in 



LEAF ROLLERS INJURING THE FOLIAGE 



187 



I 




;^^^^' ''-'"•"- ' ■/ 


5 


^^^M^ 


^^m "^ '^^ 


^^-^^^ 


1^ 


^^^^g^^^^^ 



Fig. 230. — Work and larva of the Clover-hay Worm. Original. 



June and July, and lays eggs on cured clover wherever it can be found. 
A second lot of moths are out in late summer. 

If the hay is used up clean each year, and any refuse is destroyed, 
there will be practically no injury. If there is likelihood that all will 
not be used by the next 
July, salt down the first 
two feet of hay when put- 
ting it up, using two 
quarts of salt to the ton. 
Do not place new hay on 
top of remnants of last 
year's crop. The old hay 
should be removed and the 
mow thoroughly cleaned. 





Fig. 231.— Adult of the Clover- 
hay Worm. Original. 



Fig. 232. — Work of the Oblique Banded 
Leaf Roller. Original. 



188 



PESTS OF GARDEN AND FIELD CROPS 



The Oblique Banded Leaf Roller {Archips rosaceana Harr.) 

Roses and other plants in greenhouses and occasionally fruit tree 
foUage sometimes are badly injured by active, green or reddish cater- 
pillars, three fourths of an inch long, which roll up the leaves, 
fasten them with silk, and feed within. The cater- 
pillar has an indistinct darker stripe down the 
middle of the back, the head is dark brown or black, 
the segments of the body are rather distinct. The 
adult is a brownish, smooth moth, and emerges from 
a pupa formed within the rolled leaves. 



'"'1^^% 



Fig. 233. — Adult 
of the Oblique 
Banded Leaf 
Roller. Original. 




Fig. 234. — The Bean Leaf -roller. Original. 



Hand picking is often the best means of control, though a prompt 
use of Paris green or arsenate of lead will check the pest, pro- 
vided the application is made before most of the larvae have retired 
into rolled-up leaves. 



The Bean Leaf-roller 

{Eudamus proteus Linn.) 

Rather odd-appearing 
worms, 11 inches long 
when mature, with narrow 
neck and prominent head, 
eat the leaves of beans 
and sometimes other leg- 
umes. The ground color 
of the larva is yellow, and 
its body is dotted with 




Fig. 235. 



Adult of the Bean Leaf-roller. 
Original. 



LEAF-MINERS INJURING THE FOLIAGE 



189 



black. It occurs principally in the South, and there are several 
generations annually. The pest may easily be checked by apply- 
ing arsenate of lead or Paris green, taking care not to use too heavy 
a dose, since beans are susceptible to burning. 

The Spinach Leaf-miner (Pegomya vicina Lintn.) 

Whitish mines are made in the leaves of beets and spinach by a 
maggot which burrows within the tissues. Several of these mines are 
seen often in a single 
leaf. The maggot is 
the larval stage of a 
gray, two-winged fly, 
which lays its eggs on 
the under side of the 
leaf. The pupal stage 
is passed in or on the 
ground. There are 
several generations 
annually. 

Since this pest lives 
also in lamb's-quarters, 
thorough destruction 
of this weed will help in control. Where practicable, infested leaves 
should be removed from the plants and destroyed. No successful 
sprays have been devised. 

The Tobacco Leaf-miner (Phthorimcea operculella Zell.) 

This pest is commonly known as the " split- worm." It is a very 
small larva, and injures the older leaves of growing tobacco by mining 
within the leaf tissues, causing small blotches. The larvae move more 
or less from place to place, one worm making several mines. There 
are several generations in a single season. The native food plant 
is horse nettle. 

Spraying or dusting with arsenate of lead or Paris green will kill 
many larvae as they start their new mines. Horse nettles should 




Fig. 2.36. 



Work of the Spinach Leaf -miner. 
Original. 



190 



PESTS OF GARDEN AND FIELD CROPS 



be destroyed. The worms may be killed in their mines by pressing 
the upper and lower leaf surfaces together. 

The Squash-bug (Anasa tristis DeG.) 

Few pests of the garden are more widely or more unfavorably known 
than the common squash-bug. As soon as squashes, cucumbers, or 
melons have made their first leaves, the overwintering adults appear 
and begin sucking the plant juices, causing the leaves to curl up, turn 




Fig. 237. — The Squash-bug. Eggs, nymphs, and adult. Original. 

brown, and die. Before long one will find the first batches of eggs, and 
after a few days the young bugs begin to appear, to add to the damage. 
Usually through summer all three stages, egg, young, and adult, are 
to be found on the vines at the same time. The adult is rusty brown to 
black, five eighths of an inch long, and provided with a strong sucking 
beak. Its head is small in proportion to the size of its body. The 
young, or nymphs, are grayish to black. They tend to cluster in colo- 
nies, hiding in a curled-up, dead leaf when not at work. The eggs 



LARGE, SUCKING BUGS INJURING FOLIAGE 



191 



are laid in batches on the under side of a leaf, and are orange or red in 
color. They are easily seen. 

The adults hibernate in old vines or other shelter. There is one 
brood annually in the North, but two or even three in the South. 

The young may be killed by spraying with 10 per cent kerosene 
emulsion. Egg masses should be destroyed. The adults may be 
trapped under bits of board or stones, where they should be looked for 
frequently. Destroy the vines as soon as the crops are off, in order 
to kill the bugs not yet matured. No contact spray is known that 
will kill the adults without also seriously injuring the vines. 



The Harlequin Cabbage-bug {Murgantia histrionica Hahn.) 

Cabbages, cauliflower, and 
related plants, in the South 
Atlantic states, are badly 
injured or destroyed by a 
small, gaudily colored bug, 
variously known as the 
"calico back," or "terrapin 
bug." The leaves of the 
plants attacked shrivel and 
turn brown, and often the 
plant is killed outright. 

The adult bug is one 



Fig. 238. —The Harlequin Cab- 
bage-bug. Eggs, nymph, and 
adult. Original. 

fourth of an inch long, broad, 
shield shaped, and strikingly 
marked with red or yellow, and 
deep blue. The j^oung, or 
nymphs, are similar in appear- 
ance. Close search of the leaves 





Fig. 239. — Eggs of the Harlequin Cab- 
bage-bug. Enlarged. Original. 



192 



PESTS OF GARDEN AND FIELD CROPS 



will reveal the peculiar-looking eggs, like white barrels with dark 
hoops. 

The adults spend the cold weather in rubbish or other shelter, and 
become active very early in the spring, feeding first on wild mustard 
and other weeds of the same family. There are several generations in 
the South. In the fall the bugs feed until driven in by cold weather. 

The most important control measure is a thorough cleaning up early 
in the fall, as soon as the crops are harvested, combined with an early 
planting of trap crops in the spring, on which the bugs will congregate 
and where they may be destroyed by spraying with 25 per cent kerosene 
emulsion or with pure kerosene. Kale or mustard are good traps. 
After the bugs are on cabbages they cannot be killed by spraying 
without at the same time injuring the plants. 



The Tarnished Plant-bug {Lygus pratensis Linn.) 

Truck crops of all kinds are injured by a small, brownish, sucking 
bug. Both in its earlier stages and as a winged adult, it sucks the 

juices of the leaves or tender stems. 
The mature bug is about one fifth 
of an inch long, and somewhat 
obscurely marked with dull yellow 
and brown. 

The young nymphs may be 
killed with a contact insecticide 
such as 7 per cent kerosene emul- 
sion or tobacco extract. The 
winged adults are too active to 
make this treatment effective. 
Thorough cleaning up of all rub- 
bish and crop remnants in the fall 
is the only other means of con- 
trol. 

The False Chinch-bug {Nysius ericce Sch. {angustatus Uhl.)) has 
similar habits. There are various other species that occasionally are 
troublesome. Control measures are the same. 




Fig. 240. —The Tarnished Plant-bug. 
Enlarged and natural size. Orig- 
inal. 



SUCKING BUGS INJURING THE FOLIAGE 



193 



The Chinch-bug {Blissus leucopterus Say) 

One of the most destructive insects in 
the history of American farming is the 
species of sucking bug occasionally at- 
tacking corn andVheat in countless mil- 
lions, and known as the chinch-bug. 
When it is numerous, fields are blasted 
as if by fire. 

The bug that causes this damage is 
quite small, one fifth of an inch long or 
less, dark or black in color, and with 
thin, white wings folded across the body 
when at rest. In the East another form 
is found with wings much shorter. The 
immature stages are often seen with the 
adults, and differ little in shape, but are 
wingless, smaller, and when young are 
bright red. 

The adults overwinter in clumps of 
grass, fallen leaves, weeds, and rubbish 
accumulating along fence rows, strips of 
woodland, and especially in corn shocks 
left in the fields. They come from 
these places in spring, and lay eggs in 
grain fields or on suitable weeds. The 
young appear in May and June. These 
mature, and there is a second lot of 
young in August or early September. 

Where small grains are infested, the 
swarms of bugs are driven from these 
at harvest and travel in armies to corn, 
which they literally overwhelm. When 
large numbers of adults have hiber- 
nated, the most striking injury may be 




Fig. 241. — Chinch-bugs on 
corn plant. Original. 



194 



PESTS OF GARDEN AND FIELD CROPS 



that caused by adults and young on ,the grains to which the adults 
have migrated in the spring. This is especially evident where corn 
shocks have been left standing in fields seeded to small grain. 

Meaures of control are various, and must be thorough and timely. 
The most important measure is destruction of all hibernating places 
where the bugs are accustomed to spend the winter. 

Clumps of grass should be raked up and burned; fence corners 
cleaned out ; all places that harbor bugs looked after. If plowing is 

depended on to destroy hiber- 
nating bugs, it must be done 
with great thoroughness, else the 
bugs will succeed in reaching the 
surface of the ground. 

Invasions of the bugs from 
newly harvested fields can be 
prevented by suitable barriers, 
among which the following is 
known by experience to be prac- 
ticable and effective: A strip 
of ground along the side from 
which the invasion threatens is 
smoothed and compacted by dragging over it a heavy plank. 
Along the center of this path a narrow line of coal tar or road 
oil is poured. The line of oil need be only half or three quarters 
of an inch wide. At intervals of three or four rods post holes are 
dug, the edge of the hole nearest the field to be protected just inter- 
cepting the line of oil. The invading bugs, when they reach this line, 
travel along it until they come to the angle of the oil line and the hole, 
when they are crowded into the hole and are unable to get out. They 
can then be killed easily by sprinkling with kerosene or kerosene emul- 
sion, or by crushing with a pole. In dusty weather the oil line will need 
renewal every day or so, while the invasion threatens. 

If a field of wheat is seen to be beyond reasonable hope, it is best to 
plow it under at once, harrow thoroughly, and plant to potatoes, alfalfa, 
soy beans, garden truck, or whatever is seasonable. 




Fig. 242. — The Chinch-bug. Enlarged 
and natural size. Original. 



LEAFHOPPERS INJURING THE FOLIAGE 



195 



In meadows where severe attack is noted the wisest measure is to cut 
and then burn over, although this probably will kill the grass roots. 

In moist weather chinch-bugs are killed in large numbers by a fungous 
disease. Attempts have been made to propagate this artificially, but 
the measure cannot be depended on with sufficient certainty in times of 
severe attack. 



The Tobacco Suck-fly {Dicyphus minimus Uhl.) 

In Florida a black, sucking bug, one eighth of an inch long, with long 
greenish legs, attacks the leaves of tobacco and by its punctures spots the 
leaf, making it wilt, turn brown, and crack. The younger stages feed in 
similar fashion on the under sur- 
face of the leaf. There are several 
generations annually. Spraying 
with tobacco extract will kill the 
immature forms and check the pest. 



The Beet Leafhopper (Eutettix 
tenella Baker) 

A very small, active insect, one 
of the "leafhoppers," swarms on 
the foliage of sugar beets in count- 
less myriads. The leaves of plants 
attacked usually exhibit a char- 
acteristic appearance, commonly 
known as " curly leaf." The edges 
are rolled in, the leaf surface is 
wrinkled, and growth is stunted. 
As a consequence the beet puts 
out many fibrous roots, does not 
reach normal size, and its sugar 
content is low. 

The adult is very small, whitish 
or pale green, winged, and is pro- 
vided with strong hind legs, en- 




FiG. 243. — Beet leaves curled by 
the Beet Leafhopper. Original. 



196 



PESTS OF GARDEN AND FIELD CROPS 




Fig. 244. — The Beet Leafhopper. 
Enlarged and natural size. Original. 



abling it to jump quickly and take wing readily. The younger stages 
are similar, but are smaller and wingless. Usually the hoppers 

appear in the beet field suddenly, 
having fed first on some other 
plant, probably species of weeds. 
In hot, dry fields conditions are 
especially favorable to the pest 
and unfavorable to the beets, 
while in fields where the reverse 
conditions prevail the beets are 
able to withstand attack. 

Infested fields may be sprayed 
with a contact insecticide, making 
the first application just as the 
young nymphs are found in numbers, and repeating. Kerosene 
emulsion may be used, diluting the stock solution with 8 parts of 
water. It is very difficult, however, to hit all the insects with 
the spray. A drag may be used to turn the leaves over, so as 
to help to make the application more thorough. 

Frames coated with tar dragged through the fields at the first appear- 
ance of the adults will catch many, and will help to check injury. 

The Spring Grain-aphis, or " Green Bug" {Tozoptera graminum 

Rond.) 

Occasionally, in recent years, oats, wheat, barley, and sometimes corn 
have been damaged to the extent of millions of dollars by this tiny 
louse. It occurs in both winged and wingless forms. The latter is 
about one twentieth of an inch long, yellowish green, with a faint dark 
line down the middle of its back. Its eyes are quite black. The 
winged form is a little larger, has a dark thorax, but otherwise is of 
the same general appearance. 

Attack comes on suddenly in the spring. Countless billions of the lice 
appear on young grain, sucking the juice of the leaves, stunting the 
growing plants or killing them outright. Reproduction goes on rapidly. 
When the fields in a section attacked are destroyed, or the plants have 



PLANT LICE INJURING THE FOLIAGE 



197 



grown and thus have acquired tougher leaves, the hce develop a winged 
generation, leave the section where at work, and appear as suddenly in 
other regions farther north, where conditions are favorable to further 
multiplication. 

Late in summer, as the grain fields mature, the lice leave them and 
take up their residence on grasses, such as common bluegrass or on corn. 
In the fall, when winter grain has sprouted, many move back to the new 
feeding ground. With the coming of cold weather, eggs are laid 
among grain plants. In the more Southern states there are living 





Fig. 245. — The 
Winged adult, 
size. Original. 



Spring Grain-aphis. 
Enlarged and natural 



Fig. 246.— The Spring 
Grain-aphis. Wing- 
less form. Enlarged 
and natural size. Orig- 
inal. 



females in existence all winter. The insect is able to breed at unusu- 
ally low temperatures. 

Oats and wheat are the favorite food plants, but the list includes rye, 
barley, corn, and several species of wild grasses, especially orchard grass. 

Normally this insect is held in check by its natural enemies, especially 
by a four-winged parasite which attacks the lice, laying its eggs within 
their bodies. Severe attacks follow warm winters combined with cold 
springs — a condition unfavorable to the parasite, but favorable to the 
aphis. 

Direct control is not feasible. Cleaning up volunteer oats and other 
food plants in the fall will greatly reduce the numbers the following 
spring. Attempts have been made artificially to introduce the parasite, 
but without entire success. 



198 PESTS OF GARDEN AND FIELD CHOPS 

The European Grain Aphis (Siphocoryne avence Fab.) 

In summer the leaves, stems, and heads of small grains sometimes are 
literally covered with this species of plant lice. They are rather 
pale green in color, marked with short bands of darker green on the back, 
and for the most part are wingless. Usually their increase is quickly 
followed by a similar increase in parasites, so that serious injury is 
averted, but occasionally they seriously damage young wheat in the 
fall. 

The lice come to the grain fields in the spring from fruit trees, 
where they have passed the winter in an egg stage, and have already 
gone through one or two generations on the fruit buds and foliage. They 
return to the trees in the latter part of summer or the fall. 

No direct measures of control on grain are known. 

The Corn Leaf-aphis {Aphis maidis Fitch) 

In midsummer, corn, or more especially sorghum and broom corn, 
becomes infested with bluish green lice which work on the younger 
leaves, and on the tassel. On broom corn their punctures often are 
followed by a red discoloration due to a bacterial disease. The wingless 
female is usually seen. It has black legs, antennae, and honey tubes, 
and a row of black dots down either side of the back. 

Winged generations are devel- 
oped as the corn matures, but the 
alternate host plants, if any, are 
unknown. No remedial measures 
have been devised. 

The Green Peach Aphis, or Spinach 
Aphis {Myziis persicoe Sulz.) 

This plant louse often is known 
as the spinach aphis, or " green 
fly." It is the same species as 
Fig. 247.— The Green Peach Aphis. ^he louse found on the foliage of 
Enlarged. Original. peach trees early in the season. 




PLANT LICE INJURING THE FOLIAGE 



199 



and known there as the " green peach aphis." The Uce migrate 
in early summer to various truck crops, especially spinach, cab- 
bage, lettuce, and celery. They are light green or yellowish in 
color, with darker markings on the abdomen. The head, antenna?, and 
honey tubes are black. This species is never covered with white 
powder}^ secretion, like the cabbage apliis. It is controlled by spraying 
with a contact insecticide, preferably tobacco extract or 5 per cent 
kerosene emulsion. In greenhouses this species is found throughout 
the year, and is a troublesome pest. 



The Melon Aphis, or Cotton Aphis (Aphis gossypii Glov.) 

Melons, cucumbers, cotton, strawberries, and many other plants 
are 'subject to infestation by tliis species of plant louse. It usually is 
seen in the wingless form, and 
works for the most part on 
the under surface of the leaf, 
which is badly curled by its 
attack. Tender growing 
shoots are a favorite feeding 
place. 

The wingless louse is dark 
green, varying to yellow. Its 
legs are light yellow, and its 
honey tubes are black, long, 
and tapering. Its length is 
one fifteenth of an inch. The 
young stages are similar, but 
are smaller and wingless. 
Winged individuals are de- 
veloped whenever the hce are 
compelled, tlii'ough lack of 
food or removal of a crop, to 
seek new feeding ground. 
Consequently attack may come on suddenly and unexpectedly. The 
full life round is not known, and probably the species passes one 




Fig. 248. — Work of the Melon Aphis. 
Original. 



200 



PESTS OF GARDEN AND FIELD CROPS 



or more generations on some alternate host plant, and sm'vives there 

through the winter. 

When found on garden crops, the Hce may be killed by spraying with 

tobacco extract or 5 per cent 
kerosene emulsion. Fumi- 
gation with carbon bisul- 
phide will destroy them, 
using an inverted tub as a 
fumigating chamber. The 
dose should be at the rate 
of one tablespoonful of car- 
bon bisulphide to a 20 
gallon tub. Aphis punk 
may be substituted for the 
carbon bisulphide and a 
light frame of oiled muslin 
may take the place of the 
tub. 

Where cotton is infested, 
direct control is impracti- 




FiG. 249. — Wingless and winged adults of 
the Melon Aphis on Leaf. Enlarged. 
Original. 



cable. In this case adopt rigorous clean culture so that weeds may 
be kept down in and around the field. 

The Pea Aphis {Macrosiphum pisi Kalt.) 

In seasons of abnormally dry spring weather a large green plant louse 
becomes abundant on peas. The adult lice are one eighth of an 
inch long, pea-green in color, with prominent dark red eyes, and long legs. 
They feed on the leaves and cluster on the terminal shoots. Usually they 
reach their greatest abundance in midsummer, and disappear in August. 

The lice come to the pea vines from clover fields, where they have 
spent the winter as tiny, black eggs. The first generations Uve on the 
clover. Winged individuals appear as the season advances, and 
migrate to peas. In August thej^ return to clover. 

Contact sprays may be used in direct control on peas. Tobacco 
extract is effective, or 5 per cent kerosene emulsion may be employed. 



PLANT LICE INJURING THE FOLIAGE 



201 



If peas are planted far enough apart in rows and the ground is dry, 
the hce may be brushed from the vines and killed by following with 




Fig. 250. — The Pea Aphis. Adults at work on vine. Original. 

a cultivator between the rows. If the ground is wet, the lice may be 
brushed into a long, shallow pan. A little water should be poured 
into the pan and covered with a film of 
coal oil. 

The Bean Aphis (Aphis rumicis Linn.) 

The tender shoots of beans sometimes are 
covered with thickly clustered plant lice. 
The same species is found commonly on pig- 
weed, dock, and other weeds. The aphis is 
one tenth of an inch long, black, often with 
a few whitish dots on each side; the an- 
tennae are whitish in their central seg- 
ments. 

Winter is passed in an egg stage on the 
twigs of wahoo or of snowball. The lice first 
migrate to weeds and then to beans. In late summer 
to the shrubs named. 




Fig. 251.— The Pea Aphis. 
Adult enlarged and nat- 
ural size. Original. 

they return 



202 



PESTS OF GARDEN AND FIELD CROPS 



On beans they may be killed by spraying with tobacco extract, or 
with 5 per cent kerosene emulsion. 

The Cabbage Aphis {Aphis brassicce Linn.) 

Cabbage, cauliflower, and related plants are subject to infestation by 
a soft-bodied plant louse, which collects in masses on the surface of 

the leaves. The 
lice are green, but 
are covered with a 
whitish, powdery 
secretion. 

Winter is passed 
as eggs on old cab- 
bage stumps or 
heads in the field. 
There may be a 
dozen or more gen- 
erations in a sum- 
mer. 
Spray thoroughly 
with tobacco extract to which soap has been added, or with 5 per 
cent kerosene emulsion, or with soap solution, 1 pound in 3 gallons 
of water. Dip infested seedhngs in the same solution before 
setting out. Dispose of crop remnants. Judicious rotation will 
help in delaying attack. Wild mustard and shepherds-purse should 
not be allowed to grow near cabbage. 




Fig. 252. — Work of the Cabbage Aphis. Original. 



The Potato Plant-louse {Macrosiphum solanifolii Ashm.) 

In occasional seasons potato vines are seriously checked in the latter 
part of summer by myriads of green, soft-bodied plant hce, which suck 
the juices of leaf and stem. Spraying the fields with contact insecti- 
cides, either tobacco extract or 5 per cent kerosene emulsion, wiU kill the 
lice. Since the pest survives the winter on alternate host plants, es- 
pecially shepherds-purse, clean culture and burning over waste places 



THRIPS INJURING THE FOLIAGE 203 

is recommended. The potato vines themselves, also, should be 
burned. 

The Hop-aphis {Phorodon humuli Schr.) 

Hops are subject to infestation by a green, soft-bodied louse, one eight- 
eenth to one twelfth of an inch in length. The male plants in hopyards 
always are infested first, and from these the lice spread two or three 
weeks later to the female or .fruiting plants. Their attack causes the 
leaves to turn yellow, and seriously reduces the yield. 

Recent studies show that the winter may be passed in an egg stage 
somewhere near or on the hop- vines, although it is known that the 
same species winters also on plum trees. There are many generations 
in the course of a summer. 

Thorough spraying with a contact insecticide, such as tobacco ex- 
tract or 5 per cent kerosene emulsion, will kill the aphids. Remedial 
treatments should be begun while the lice are still isolated on the male 
plants, before spread has started. 

The Greenhouse Thrips {Heliothrips hcemorrhoidalis Bouch^) 

The fohage of plants in greenhouses sometimes is injured by a very 
small, sucldng insect properly known as a thrips. Evidence of the 
work is seen first in numerous whitish spots, where the juices of 
the leaf have been sucked out. These spots show in the beginning 
more plainly on the lower surface. As attack goes on, the spots 
spread, forming blotches, dead areas appear around the edges of 
the leaf, the foliage wilts, and finally drops off. The surface of the 
leaf is covered with small drops of reddish fluid, which frequently 
turns black. 

The adult insect is one fifteenth of an inch in length, dark bodied, and 
though it has wings is not much disposed to fly. The young are lighter 
colored, and have no wings. They suck the leaf juices just as do the 
adults. Three or four weeks are required for a generation. 

Usually this pest is controlled successfully by fumigation with 
tobacco. 



204 



PESTS OF GARDEN AND FIELD CROPS 



The Onion Thrips {Thrips tabaci Lind.) 

A great variety of truck crops and some flowering plants under 
glass are subject to injury by this minute form of insect life. 
The juices are sucked from the leaves, causing numerous tiny 
white spots. The insect itself is so small 
as almost to escape notice. It is yellowish, 
slender, and one twenty-fifth of an inch long. 
Eggs are laid within the leaf tissue. Several 
generations may be developed in a season. 

Crop remnants and neighboring weeds should 
be burned in the fall. Attack may be checked 
by spraying with tobacco extract, being careful 
to get the material into the axils of leaves, 
since such places are favored by the pest. The 
insects are more active on the outer parts of 
the plant in the early morning, and thus are 
more easily reached at that time. 

The Tobacco Thrips {Euthrips nicotiance Hinds) 

The work of this minute insect may be rec- 
ognized by a whitening of the leaves, especially 
along the veins. The adult winters in tobacco 
fields, and breeds rapidly in the warmer 
months. Before tobacco plants are up and 
after they are gathered it lives on weeds, or 
often on oats. 
Spray with kerosene emulsion, diluting the stock emulsion with 
10 parts of water. 




Fig. 253. — White spots 
on onion leaf caused 
by the Onion Thrips. 
Enlarged to twice nat- 
ural size. Original. 



The Grass Thrips {AyiapJiothrips striata Osborn) 

Usually the work of this insect is observed rather than the pest 

itself. Various grasses, including oats, turn white, the appearance 

being known as '' silver top." More closely examined, the leaves will 

be found covered with white dots where the juices have been sucked out, 



SMALL, ACTIVE WHITE FLIES ON FOLIAGE 



205 



and further observation will disclose the minute, slender insects that 
are doing the mischief. They are one twenty-fifth of an inch long, 
the larger winged individuals brownish in color and the smaller wing- 
less forms somewhat pinkish. 

Winter is passed in debris at the base of the plants. There are 
several generations in the course of a summer. 

Remedies are rotation of crops, or burning over infested fields in 
winter. 



The Greenhouse White-fiy {Aleurodes vaporarioru7n Westw.) 

Wherever plants are grown under glass this troublesome pest is sure 
to put in its appearance, and injure the plants by sucking their juices. 




Fig. 



J54. — Larvae and adult of the (Ireenhouse White-fly. Enlarged. 
Original. 



The adults have four wings, covered with a whitish powder, and are 
active creatures, flj^ing readily. They are about three fiftieths of an 
inch in length. The young are flattened, oval in shape, and have 
sucking mouth parts, like the adults. 

The insect is nearly always found on the under side of the leaves, 
and prefers the younger foliage at the upper part of the plant. The 
leaves attacked lose their vitality, and if the insect is not checked, the 



206 PESTS OF GARDEN AND FIELD CROPS 

plants will die. Cucumbers and tomatoes usually are badly infested, 
but almost any vegetables or flowering plants grown in greenhouses 
may be attacked. 

The most effective remedy is fumigation with hydrocyanic acid gas. 
Some benefit will be derived from spraying with whale-oil soap, 1^ 
ounces to 1 gallon of water. 

Mealy Bugs 

Slow-moving, oval, soft-bodied bugs, one tenth to one sixth of an 
inch long, the body covered with a whitish, powdery secretion, infest 
various plants grown under glass. In the South they are a nuisance 




Fig. 255. — Mealy Bugs on melon. Original. 

on citrus fruits. The Citrus Mealy Bug, Pseudococcus citri Risso, and 
a closely related form, Pseudococcus longispinus Targ., are common 
species. 

The young are small, red, and fairly active at first. The adult males 
are winged. 

Contact insecticides, especially such as contain soap or oil, are effec- 
tive remedies. They should be apphed with considerable force in 
order to penetrate the waxy powder with which the bodies of the 
insects are coate'd. 



MINUTE, SUCKING MITES INJURING FOLIAGE 207 



The Red Spider (Tetranychus bimaculatus Harv.) 

In greenhouses, throughout the year, many plants are subject to 
attack by an exceedingly small mite, commonly known as the " red 
spider," Very fine webs are spun 
on the under surfaces of leaves 
or over flower heads, and beneath 
these the mites work, sucking the 
juices of the leaves, giving them 
a sickly yellow or brown appear- 
ance, and finally killing the plants, 
unless checked. 

In the Southern states cotton 
is injured t^y this species, the leaves 
turning brown and falling off. 

Vegetables grown outdoors, 
especially beans, cucumbers, and 
melons, often are infested, par- 
ticularly in the Southern states. 
Rarely, shade trees in the South 
are injured. 

The mite is reddish or greenish 
in color, one fiftieth of an inch 
long, has four pairs of legs, and 
its body is marked with two 
darker spots. 

In greenhouses, fumigation is 
not effective. The mites may be 
controlled by frequent spraying 
with clear water or with soap solu- 
tion. On such plants as are not injured by sulphur an effective 
treatment is a spraying with water 1 gallon, flowers of sulphur 
1 ounce. 

On cotton or truck crops the last-mentioned spray is effective. Or 
the plants may be dusted with a mixture of sulphur and air-slaked 




Fig. 256. — Foliage injured and webbed- 
by the Red Spider ; and adult Red 
Spider, greatly enlarged. Original. 



208 



PESTS OF GARDEN AND FIELD CROPS 



lime. Around cotton fields weeds should be kept down, and in the 
fall all dead, infested cotton plants should be burned. 

The Clover Mite (Bryohia pratensis Garm.) 

Both the leaves of clover and the foliage of various fruit trees are 
attacked by a small, eight-legged mite, which sucks their juices, 
causing much injury when abundant. 
It is a tiny red creature three hun- 
dredths of an inch in 
length. 

On clover no direct 
remedial measures seem 
feasible. The mite 
passes the winter as a 
rule in an egg stage 
on the bark of neigh- 
boring fruit trees. It 
may be killed there by 
spraying in winter with 
lime-sulphur solution. 




Fig. 257.— The 
Clover Mite. 
Enlarged to 
fifteen times 
natural size. 
Original. 




Fig. 258. — Eggs of the Clover 
Mite on bark. Enlarged to 
ten times natural size. Orig- 
inal. 



The Cotton Boll Weevil {Anthonomus grandis Boh.) 

No pest of recent years has wrought greater damage than this in- 
vader from Mexico. It is now distributed throughout the greater 
part of the cotton-growing regions. 

Both the squares and the bolls are attacked, their substance eaten 
out, and their contents so damaged that they die or fail to produce 
fiber. The injury is wrought both by the adults in their feeding and 
egg-laying punctures, and by the grubs which hatch from the eggs 
laid within the bolls or squares. 

The adult boll weevil is a small snout beetle, one fourth of an inch 
long. It is brownish in color through most of its existence, but lighter 
when newly emerged and darker after it has been out for two or three 
weeks. The grub, found only within the squares or bolls, is whitish, 
heavy bodied, and has a dark head. It has no feet. 



SNOUT BEETLES ATTACKING BUD OR FRUIT 



209 



In the early spring the adult beetles appear in the cotton fields 
from their winter hiding places. Usually there are but few of them at 
this time. When the squares 
begin to form, eggs are laid 
within them, and as the grub 
develops the square usually 
falls to the ground. A pupal 
stage is passed within the 
square, and soon a second 
generation of adults is out. 
Eggs are now laid in the 
squares as before. There are 
four or five generations in 
the course of the season. 

When the squares are no longer available, eggs are laid in the 
bolls in similar fashion. 

Hibernation of the adult weevils does not begin until late in the 
season, long after the regular crop of cotton is picked. When the 
first frosts come, the adults seek shelter in which to spend the winter, 
while the immature stages die. At this time the adults fly to 
considerable distances, seeking places to hibernate. 




Fig. 259. 



Work of the Cotton Boll Weevil. 
Original. 




Fig. 260. — Larva of the Cotton Boll 
Weevil, enlarged and natural size. 
Original. 



Fig. 261. — Adult Cotton Boll Weevil. 
Enlarged and natural size. Original. 



210 



PESTS OF GARDEN AND FIELD CROPS 



The most important means of control is a thorough cleaning up of 
the cotton fields as soon as the crop is gathered, together with destruc- 
tion of all stalks, dead bolls, and crop remnants. At this time the 
existing adult beetles are not yet ready to hibernate, and there are 
many grubs and pupae in the field that would later become beetles, 
coming out at the normal time of hibernation. These immature 
stages are thus destroyed, and the adults, left with no cotton plants 

to feed on, are for the most part starved, 
or are unable to get to suitable places to 
spend the winter. In destroying the stalks 
it is best to plow them out, leaving a row 
now and then, at once raking the loose 
plants to the standing row and burning 
the entire lot. 

Early in the season, when it is seen 
that squares are being badly punctured, 
and are dropping off in large numbers, a 
chain drag may be drawn between the 
rows so as to draw the squares into the 
middles, where they will get the full force 
of the sun. Most of the grubs within will 
be killed by the heat. 

It is possible to poison a large percent- 
age of the adult weevils by applying powdered arsenate of lead to 
the squares with a blower or powder gun, making the first applica- 
tion as soon as squares begin to form, and repeating as necessary. 

Any practice that will help to get the cotton planted and matured 
early will greatly help to avoid serious injury, because the cotton 
will then be well along before the weevils have become numerous. 
Thus, winter plowing, early spring planting, and the use of early ma- 
turing varieties, together with frequent cultivation in the growing 
season, are advisable. By this means the plants are stimulated 
to quick, vigorous growth, and escape serious attack at the period 
when they are more susceptible to injury. 




Fig. 262. — Pupa of the Cot- 
ton Boll Weevil. Enlarged 
and natural size. Original. 



LARGE WORMS BORING IN BUD OR FRUIT 211 

The Cowpea Curculio {Chalcodermus ceneus Boh.) 

The pods of cowpeas are punctured, and early in the spring young 
cotton plants are injured, by the feeding of this beetle. The immature 
stage or grub hves within the growing " peas," and ruins them for 
seed. The adult beetle is one fourth of an inch long, bronze black, 
its thorax and wing covers deeply pitted. When working on cotton, 
the beetles puncture the tender stems. 

The insect hibernates as an adult. Eggs are laid in cowpeas as soon 
as the pods are large enough. The larva enters the ground to pupate. 

No direct control measures are known. If cowpeas are badly in- 
fested, it is unwise to follow with cotton in the same field. 

The Corn Ear-worm (Heliothis obsoleta Fab.) 

Synonyms: The Cotton Boll-worm; the Tomato Fruit-worm; the 
Tobacco False Budworm 

Widespread injury to valuable garden and field crops is due to the 
ravages of this insect. 

The full-grown worm is variable in markings, but usually is dull 
greenish or brownish in color, with indistinct stripes or spots, and is 




Fig. 263. — Larva and work of the Corn Ear-worm. Reduced to one half 
natural size. Original. 

about 1| inches long. It is naked, and the skin looks somewhat 
greasy, like that of cutworms. 

On corn the worms feed in the young kernels and eat the tender 




212 PESTS OF GARDEN AND FIELD CROPS 

silk inclosed within the husk. They are especially destructive to 
sweet corn. 

On tomatoes they bore into the fruit and eat more or less of the 
pulp within. 

Cotton is attacked at the time that the corn in southern fields is 

maturing, and therefore is no 
longer suitable for food. The 
worms eat into the bolls. 

Tobacco is subject to injury 
at the same season, the larvse 
eating into the buds and stalks, 
though in Florida the plants 
are attacked also early in the 
season and the leaves muti- 
FiG. 264. — Adult of the Corn Ear-worm. lated before they have un- 
^"^^^^^- folded. 

The adult is a yellowish or brownish moth, expanding a little more 
than 1^ inches. There are two broods in the North, and from four to 
six in the South. The eggs of the first generation are laid on any avail- 
able food plant, depending on the section of country. Succeeding 
broods do the greater part of the injury. Winter is passed as a pupa 
in the soil, in a pecuHar burrow constructed by the larva, which de- 
scends several inches, turns, and makes a gallery nearly to the surface 
of the ground for the use of the moth in emerging, and then retires to 
the bottom of the gallery to transform. 

One of the best means of control is fall plowing and cultivation, 
so as to break up the exit galleries in the soil. 

Prevention of attack by the later broods often is difficult. Early 
planted corn is more likely to escape injury. The same is true of 
cotton. On cotton, arsenical poisons are used with good results, 
usually applied dry. Strips of late corn planted among cotton after 
the latter is under way will come into silk at the right time to divert 
attack from the cotton. Cowpeas may be used in the same way. 

On tobacco buds an effective remedy consists in poisoning the 
worms with a mixture of corn meal and dry arsenate of lead, using 1 



WORMS BORING IN BUD OR FRUIT 213 

teaspoonful of the arsenate of lead to a quart of meal. Apply the 
mixture dry, sprinkling it on or into the buds. 

The same remedy is available when the worms are troublesome, 
boring into tomatoes. 

The Tobacco Budworm (Chloridea virescens Fab.) 

Injury by this species becomes noticeable late in the season, the 
larvae boring into the rolled-up leaves or buds, and later into seed pods. 
In appearance the caterpillar resembles the boll-worm, but is smaller, 
and its stripes are narrower and more distinct. The life round is 
similar to that of the boll-worm, and the means of control are the 
same. 

Cutworms attacking Cotton Bolls 

Certain species of cutworms frequently climb the stalks of cotton 
and bore into the bolls. The one most commonly observed, Prodenia 
ornithogalli Guen., may be recognized by two rows of triangular black 
spots down its back, edged with very narrow light stripes. One or 
more earlier generations are passed on weeds. 

Application of arsenicals will help to check the pest. Use the 
same remedies recommended for the boll-worm or "corn ear- worm" 
attacking cotton. 

The Cotton Square-borer ( Uranotes melinus Hbn.) 

Cotton squares are bored into and their inner substance eaten by a 
flat, oval worm, clear green in color, its head drawn in beneath the 
front part of its body. 

Cowpeas, and certain weeds, are favorite food plants, as well as 
cotton. Eggs are laid on the leaves, and the larvae feed exposed for a 
few days before boring into the squares. The adult is a deep red 
butterfly, with shining red spots at the lower edge of the hind 
wings. 

Dusting or spraying with arsenate of lead or Paris green will kill 
the young worms if the application is made early, before they bore 
into the squares. 



214 PESTS OF GARDEN AND FIELD CROPS 



The Wheat-head Army-worm {Meliana alhilinea Hbn.) 

Naked, dark brown or green, striped caterpillars eat into the heads 
of wheatj or other small grains, and in the same way are destructive 




Fig. 265. — The Wheat-head Army-worm. Larva and adult, natural size, and 
work in wheat head, enlarged. Original. 



WORMS BORING IN FRUIT 



215 



on the heads of timothy. Their work is confined largely to the ker- 
nels, the chaff falling to the ground. 

They are at work in June and July, and a second brood appears in 
the later summer months. The adult is a brownish yellow moth. 
At the end of summer the full-grown caterpillars of the second brood 
enter the ground, where the winter is passed. 

Early fall pasturing will starve out the second brood of caterpillars. 
With this should be combined the destruction of wild grasses, for the 
worms will feed on these in lack of their favorite food. Stock may be 
removed from the pastures by the middle of September if desired. 
Early fall plowing, where feasible, will accomplish somewhat the 
same result. 

The Pickle Worm {Diaphania nitidalis Cramer) 

In the Southern states ripening melons, squashes, and cucumbers 
are rendered worthless by a whitish or greenish worm, half an inch 




Fig. 266. — The Pickle Worm. Original. 



to an inch long, which bores holes into the fruit, feeding both on the 
rind and inside. Blossoms, leaves, and stems, also, are injured, but the 
damage to the fruit is the most serious. 

The adult is a handsome moth, brownish in color, with large, clear 



216 



FUSTS OF GARDEN AND FIELD CROPS 



areas in its wings, and expanding one to one and a quarter inches. 
At the end of the abdomen is a brush of brown hairs. There are four 
generations in a season. The winter is passed as a pupa in dried and 
folded leaves on the ground. Usually the moths are not abundant 
until July. 




Fig. 267. — Section through melon showing work of the Melon Caterpillar. 

Original. 



The most effective means of control is the planting of early squashes, 
as trap crops, among the melons. The insect will choose the squashes 
for its egg la3ang, and if the melons are of an early variety, they will 
practically escape injury. Destruction of rubbish and fall plowing will 
help. 

The Melon Caterpillar (Diaphania hijalinata Linn.) 

Damage by the melon worm 
is similar to that done by 
the pickle worm. Squashes, 
melons, cucumbers, and re- 
lated plants are subject to 





Fig. 



268. — The Melon Cater- 
pillar. Original. 



Fig. 269. 



-Adult of the Melon Cater- 
pillar. Original, 



SMALL WORMS WORKING IN THE SEED 217 

attack, the worms first eating the fohage and then boring into the 
fruit. The full-grown worm is f to 1§ inches long, yellowish in color, 
and marked with two narrow light stripes down its back. The adult 
has white wings, broadly bordered with dark brown. The winter is 
passed as a pupa in folded leaves on the ground. There are three to 
four generations annually. The species is most injurious in the Gulf 
states. 

Since the worms devour the foliage before feeding in the fruit, the 
best remedy is to apply arsenate of lead or Paris green to the vines. 
Crop remnants should be cleaned up, and fall plowing is advisable. 
Early squashes may be used as traps, to divert attack from melons. 

The Pea-moth (Cydia (Semasia) nigricana Steph.) 

In northern sections growing peas are subject to infestation by a 
cylindrical, light yellow larva, half an inch long when full grown, 
which works in the young seed witliin the growing pod. Infested 
pods ripen early, crack open, and the worm then emerges and goes 
into the ground to transform. The eggs are laid on the pods about 
the close of the blossoming season. Arsenate of lead or Paris green 
applied at this time and again in ten days will check the pest. Early 
peas are not usually much infested, and the same is true of very late 
varieties. 

The Clover Seed-caterpillar {Laspeyresia {Enarmonia) interstinctana 

Clem.) 

Tiny, whitish worms, a third of an inch long when full grown, work 
in the growing heads of clover, eating the florets or the soft, forming 
seeds. In their work they hollow out a cavity in the head, which fails 
to bloom or often blooms on one side only. If a head is torn open, 
the caterpillar will be found inside. 

The adult moth appears at the time of the first blooming of clover. 
Succeeding generations are on the wing at the time of the second 
blooming, and again in late summer. Hibernation takes place as 
pupae in silk cocoons on the ground, or sometimes as adults. 



218 



PESTS OF GARDEN AND FIELD CROPS 



In control, make the first cutting of hay early in June, while the 
caterpillars are still in the heads, and store this hay as soon as pos- 
sible. Pasture clover fields in the fall. Plant new fields remote from 
old ones. Plow up old fields in the fall or early spring, and in the 
spring harrow and roll. 





Fig. 270. — The Clover 
Seed-caterpillar. Adult, 
enlarged and natural 
size. Original. 



Fig. 271.— Work of the Wheat Midge. 
Enlarged to three times natural size. 
Original. 



The Wheat Midge (Itonida (Contarinia) tritici Kby.) 

The " red weevil " is another common name of this insect. When 
it is present in large numbers in the heads of wheat, oats, or rye, it 
gives them a pinkish tinge. The damage is done by a tiny pink mag- 
got, which feeds on the forming kernel, within the protection of the 
glumes. As a result of its work the ripe kernel is shrunken, and the 
yield, especially of wheat, seriously reduced. 

When mature, the maggot falls to the ground, spins a delicate cocoon, 
and remains there until the next spring, when the tiny, gnatlike adult 
comes out, ready to lay eggs again on the forming heads. 

Fall plowing is an effective remedy. Instead of this the stubble 
may be burned over. If clover is growing in the stubble, burn in winter 
when the ground is frozen, so that the roots may not be injured. 



MINUTE WORMS WORKING IN THE SEED 



219 



The Sorghum Midge {Contarinia sorghicola Coq.) 
Heads of sorghum are attacked by the larva of a minute two- 
winged insect or '' midge," preventing the formation of seed. If 
infested heads are examined, the seeds will be found shriveled, while 
beside them may be seen a tiny grub. Profitable crops of seed can- 
not be secured where the midge is abundant. 

The first generations of the midge are passed in other plants that 
mature heads earlier, notably Johnson grass. By the time the sor- 
ghum is sufficiently mature the midges are numerous. Eggs are laid 
within the developing seeds. 

Remedial measures include destruction of Johnson grass, and clean 
harvesting in the fall. 



The Clover Flower-midge 

The presence of the clover 
flower-midge is recognized by 
the fact that the florets of clover 
bloom fail to develop normally, 
become shrunken, and the whole 
head lacks color. 

The adult insect is a minute, 
gnatlike creature with long legs 
and dusky wings. Eggs are laid 
in the clover head, and the larva 
feeds in the ovaries, preventing 
the normal expansion of the floret 
and the development of seed. 
A pupal stage is passed in the 
ground, followed by a second 
brood at the time of the second 
blooming of clover. Winter is 
passed in the soil. 

In fields containing mostly 
clover and Httle timothy it is 



(Dasyneura leguminicola Lint.) 




Fig. 272. — Clover head showing irregu- 
lar blooming caused by the Clover 
Flower-midge. Original. 



220 



PESTS OF GARDEN AND FIELD CROPS 




Fig. 273. — The Clover Flower-midge. 
Florets showing arrested development. 
Original. 

flying. Here again the second blooming will be exempt. 



feasible to cut for hay early, 
before the larvae have done much 
damage or completed their 
growth. The second crop will 
then be free of attack. 

Where timothy is combined 
with clover, the insect is con- 
trolled by clipping back the 
growth in May, thus retarding 
the blooming of clover past the 
danger point, since the heads 
will not be at the blooming 
period when the midges are 



The Clover Seed Chalcid Fly {Bruchophagus funebris How.) 

The larva or grub of this tiny insect lives in the ripening seeds of 
clover or alfalfa. Its presence is seldom suspected, and the only evi- 
dence may be the shortage of the seed and the large quantity of empty 
hulls blown out with the chaff. 




Fig. 274. — The Clover Flower-midge. Section through floret, showing work 
and larva. Enlarged and natural size. Original. 



SUCKING BUGS ATTACKING FRUIT OR BUD 



221 



The adult is a very small, black, four- 
winged fly. Eggs are laid in the de- 
veloping seed while it is still tender. 
The grub eats out the contents of the 
seed, and transforms in the empty shell. 
A second brood of flies then emerges 
and lays eggs in the developing seeds 
of the second crop of clover. The winter 
is passed in seeds that have fallen to 
the ground or in those still remaining 
in uncut heads. 

Clipping back clover to retard the 
blooming season will give immunity. 
The heads will not then be in a suitable stage of growth at the time 
the adults are on the wing. 




Fig. 275.— The Clover Seed 
Chalcid Fly. Adult, greatly 
enlarged. Original. 



^^ % 



Fig. 



276.— Work of the Clover Seed Chalcid Fly. 
natural size. Original. 



Enlarged to six times 



Plant-bugs attacking Cotton Bolls (Pentatorna ligata Say, Nezara 
hilaris Say, Dysdercus suturellus H. Schf., and others) 

Injury to cotton bolls by various plant-bugs often is imperfectly 
recognized, though the total damage may be severe. In general, all 



222 



PESTS OF GARDEN AND FIELD CROPS 




these insects have strong, sucking beaks, which they insert through 
the protecting leaves of the young boll. On the outside a close ex- 
amination will reveal small punctures. Within, the evidence of attack 
is usually a failure of some or all of the seeds 
to mature, a shrivehng of some parts, or a 
staining of the lint. Frequently the injury re- 
sults in complete destruction of the boll. 

Most plant bugs attacking cotton reach 
greatest abundance in August or September. 
They hibernate as adults, largely in old plants, 
rubbish, and similar shelter. 

Remedial measures include destruction of 
weeds in the spring, to deprive the overwin- 
tering bugs of food ; early planting, to mature 
the cotton before the adults are out in greatest 
abundance ; and the burning of old stalks and 
rubbish early in the fall. Hand picking may be necessary where a 
species is present in overwhelming numbers. 

Cotton Sharpshooters {Jassidce) 

Small active insects are found on cotton in the latter part of the 
season, making tiny punctures in the bolls. They are variously marked 
and colored, and, examined closely, appear to have abnormally large 
heads shaped hke a broad V, widest where it joins the body. Coming 
late in the season, their work does not do appreciable damage, and no 
remedial measures are necessary. In the early part of summer they are 
to be found on the young foliage of trees. 



Fig. 277. — The Cot- 
ton-stainer, Dys- 
dercus suturellus 
Original. 



Plant Lice attacking Wheat Heads 

Two closely related species of plant hce, Macrosiphum granaria Buck 
and Macrosiphum cerealis Kalt., often are found on wheat and occa- 
sionally become so abundant on the growing heads that the grain is 
stunted and the yield reduced. Both species are yellowish green in 
color, have long black antennae and slender, black honey tubes. The 



PLANT LICE ON FRUIT OR BUD 223 

length of the body is one tenth of an inch. In midsummer they Hve 
on various grasses, returning to volunteer wheat and oats in the fall. 

No means of control are known other than rotation of crops and the 
destruction of volunteer grains. The natural enemies of these lice 
ordinarily hold them in check. 



CHAPTER XXIII 



Insect Pests of Orchard and Small Fruits 



The Grape Root-worm (Fidia viticida Walsh) 



Evidence of the presence of this insect is twofold. Above ground 

the parent beetle eats characteristic, 
chainlike holes in the leaves. Be- 
neath ground the grubs which hatch 
from eggs laid by the beetles gnaw 
channels and holes in the larger roots 
and entirely destroy the smaller roots 
and root hairs. The serious injury 
is that done by the grubs. 

The adult beetle is one fourth inch 
long, robust, grayish, and covered 
with very short hairs. It emerges in 




Fig. 278. — Roots of grape in- 
jured by the Grape Root-worm. 
Original. 




Fig. 279. — Adult of the Grape Root- 
worm. Enlarged and natural size. 
Original. 



224 



GRUBS INJURING THE ROOTS 



225 



July, feeds on the leaves, and lays eggs in clusters under loose bark 

on the canes. The young grub, as soon as hatched, drops to the 

ground, makes its way to the roots, and 

feeds tliroughout the summer. When full 

grown, it is two fifths of an inch long, 

whitish, with a pale brown head. In the 

fall the larva goes deeper in the soil, and 

winters in an earthen cell. In spring it 

returns to a point two or tlu-ee inches 

below the surface of the ground, and in 

June makes a pupal cell, in wliich it 




Fig. 280. — The Grape 
Root-worm. Larvae. 
Original. 




Fig. 281. — Grape leaf showing characteristic 
work of the adults of the Grape Root-worm. 
Original. 



remains for nearly three 
weeks. The adults emerge 
from this in July. 

The most effective means 
of control is a thorough 
spraying of the vines the 
last of June, or as soon as 
beetles are seen, using ar- 
senate of lead 3 pounds, 
molasses 1 gallon, and water 
50 gallons. The molasses 
is added because it attracts 
the beetles and makes the 
spraying more effective. 
Stirring the soil beneath 
the vines about the middle 
of June will destroy many 
pupae in their cells. 



White Grubs (Lachnosterna spp.) 
Strawberry plants often are severely injured by white, thick-bodied 
grubs which feed on the roots. Entire sections in large strawberry 
patches may thus be killed out. 

This is the same pest that attacks the roots of corn and other field 
Q 



226 



PESTS OF ORCHARD AND SMALL FRUITS 



and garden crops, and is discussed under the heading " White Grubs, 
in the section on Insect Pests of Garden and Field Crops, page 109. 



The Woolly Apple Aphis {Schizoneura lanigera Hausm.) 
The woolly aphis is found both on the larger twigs or limbs and on 
the roots of apple trees. It is characterized by a white, fluffy secre- 
tion, looking like little masses of cotton. On the twigs it is found in ^ 




Fig. 282. 



Apple root showing characteristic work of the 
Woolly Apple Aphis. Original. 



clusters on the more tender bark, especially at the axils of twigs or 
where there has been some break in the bark, or on water sprouts. 
Its work here results in a swelhng, which is apt later to crack open. 
On the roots the attack causes knotty enlargements. The root forms 
are the more serious, because of interfering with the normal functions 
of the roots. Attack is especially severe on newly set trees, which are 
less able to withstand injury. 

For the greater part of the year the hce are wingless. Toward the 
end of summer winged individuals are developed, and these fly to 
new hosts, where, after a succeeding sexed generation, eggs are laid 
in crevices of the bark. Hibernation is accomphshed both by these 
eggs and by the subterranean colonies. 

For the lice working above ground spray with tobacco extract or 
with 7 per cent kerosene emulsion. Apply the material with con- 
siderable force. For those beneath ground draw back the earth from 
around the tree to a distance of 2 or 3 feet and a depth of 4 



PLANT LICE INJURING THE ROOTS 



227 



or 5 inches, sprinkle 2 to 6 pounds of tobacco dust on the roots 
and soil thus exposed, and then replace the dirt removed. Ten per 





Fig. 283.— The Woolly Apple 
Aphis. Cluster of lice on twig. 
Original, 



Fig. 284. — Scars on twigs caused by 
work of the Woolly Apple Aphis. 
Original. 



cent kerosene emulsion may be used instead of the tobacco dust, 
jdrawing away the dirt and applying 2 or 3 gallons. 

The Grape-phylloxera (Phylloxera vastatrix Planch.) 
Numerous small, rather spherical galls are formed on the under 
[surface of the leaves of grapes, while on the roots other colonies of the 



228 



PESTS OF ORCHARD AND SMALL FRUITS 



same species of lice cause swellings which later decay, resulting in the 



death of the roots. 




The serious injury is that done by the root-in- 
habiting forms. 

On native grapes, in the eastern states, this 
insect is fairly common, but the roots of these 
grapes are resistant and no notable damage 
results. On imported grapes in the Pacific 
coast states the roots are attacked rather than 
the leaves, and here the insect is serious, its 
work resulting in the death of the vines. The 
lice are small, yellowish, and soft bodied. 
Winged generations are produced, which spread 
the species to new fields. 



Fig. 285. — Work of the 
Grape-phylloxera on 
roots. Original. 




Fig. 286. — Galls on grape leaf caused by the 
Grape-phylloxera. Original. 



In control, in California, imported varieties are grafted on native 
eastern stocks, thus securing practical immunity. Infested vineyards 
are treated by flooding, applying water first for 10 days, just after the 
picking season, again for a similar period a few weeks later, and for a 
thirty-day period in winter. Vines grown in nearly pure sand are not 
severely attacked. 



PLANT LICE FEEDING ON THE ROOTS 



229 



The Black Peach Aphis 
{Aphis persicw-niger Er. Sm.) 

The roots of peach trees often become infested 
with a soft-bodied, black plant louse. Usually 
a few of the same Uce will be found on the leaves 
as well, but often the only visible evidence of 
attack is the yellowing of the fohage and 
general unthrifty appearance of the tree. Ex- 
amination will disclose large numbers of these 
insects clustered on the roots. When mature, 
they are shining black, and the body is more 
nearly round than that in most plant lice. 
The younger forms are brown or reddish. 

Treatment consists in drawing away the earth 
from around the base of the tree and applying 
3 or 4 pounds of tobacco dust, replacing the 
earth afterwards. The lice on fohage may be 
killed by spraying thoroughly with tobacco ex- 
tract or 7 per cent kerosene emulsion. 

The Strawberry Root-louse {Aphis forbesi Weed) 

Dark greenish or bluish, soft-bodied plant lice 
infest the roots of strawberries. Where beds 
are badly attacked, patches are killed out here 
and there. If a plant that is unthrifty is pulled 
up, clusters of the Uce will be found on the roots, always in com- 
pany with ants. 

The ants are responsible for the root infestation. The lice hatch 
early in the season from eggs laid in the fall on the stems and leaves 
by the last generation of the previous year. Two or three generations 
are passed above ground ; then the ants appear and carry the lice to 
the roots, later transporting them to other plants as the ones infested 
sicken and die. 

An effective treatment consists in covering the plants with straw in 




Fig. 287.-TheBlack 
Peach Aphis. Lice 
clustered on root. 
Original. 



230 



PESTS OF ORCHARD AND SMALL FRUITS 



early spring, before growth starts, and burning them over, thus de- 
stroying the eggs on the leaves and stems. Beds may be sprayed with 

tobacco extract after the eggs 
hatch and before the ants appear, 
but the application must be 
thorough. Old beds that will be 
discarded should always be plowed 
up in the fall, or, better, burned 
over in fall or winter. 




Fig. 288. — Early-season genera- 
tion of the Strawberry Root- 
louse on strawberry leaf and 
stem. Original. 




Fig. 289. — Eggs of the Strawberry 
Root-louse among hairs of leaf- 
stem. Enlarged. Original. 



The Strawberry Crown-girdler {OtiorJujnchus ovatus Linn.) 

Strawberry plants sometimes 
are girdled an inch or two be- 
low the surface 'of the ground 
by the young or grubs of this 
insect. Infested plants tend to 
wilt down, and if one pulls at the 
tops, they will be found to come 

up readily, and to show the 

1 n j^i . , ., . Fig. 290. — Adult of the Strawberry 

work of the msect on the mam Crown-girdler. Enlarged and natu- 

root a httle below the crown. ral size. Original. 




GIRDLING THE MAIN ROOT 



231 



The adult beetle is a general feeder, and sometimes injures shade 
trees. 

Wild strawberry and the roots of various common grasses are the 
natural food of the grubs. It is inadvisable therefore to set out plants 
in ground that has been in sod where examination shows the presence of 
this grub or similar root feeders in numbers in the soil. 



The Cranberry Girdler {Crambus hortuellus Hiibn.) 

Injury by this species is easily recog- 
nized, the plants being girdled just below 
the surface of the sand. The tops show 
the effects by turning brown and dying. 

Damage is likely to be confined to 
restricted areas. Flooding for ten days 
after picking is an effective means of 
control. 




Fig. 291.— Adult of the 
Cranberry Girdler. Origi- 
nal. 



The Grape Root-borer {Memythrus polistiformis Harr.) 

The softer tissues within the roots of grapes 
are attacked by a yellowish white borer, 1^ 
inches long when full grown, and somewhat 




Fig. 292. — The Grape Root-borer. Original. 



but 



robust. Infested vines do not usually die, 
fail to make thrifty growth. 

Two years are required by the borer to reach 
maturity, and therefore one will ordinarily find 




Fig. 293. — Pupa of 
the Grape Root- 
borer. Original. 



232 



PESTS OF ORCHARD AND SMALL FRUITS 




Fig. 294. — Adult of the Grape Root- 
borer. Enlarged to twice natural size. 
Original. 



two sizes of borers in the 
roots. When mature, the borer 
pupates just below the sur- 
face of the ground. The adult 
is a clear- winged moth closely 
resembling a wasp. 

Cultivation in June and July 
will destroy or bury many of 
the pupae. Vines should be 
stimulated liberally so as to 
withstand attack. Removal 



of the larvae from the roots by hand is sometimes practiced. 



Prionid Borers (Prionus spp.) 




Fig. 295. — A Prionid Borer. Slightly enlarged. Original. 



Large, yellowish-white borers, 
sometimes 2^ inches long, occasion- 
ally are found working in or on the 
roots of grapevines, pear trees, and 
other fruits. They are the larvae of 
dark brown beetles of the genus 
Prionus. When working in a large 
root, the borer often hollows out 
the entire inner parts, leaving only 
the shell. Removal by hand is the 
only known remedy. 




Fig. 296. — Adult of a Prionidj 
Borer, Prionus imbricornis. Origi- 
nal. 



BORING IN THE CROWN 



233 



The Strawberry Crown-borer ( T'l/Zoderma /rag'ancB Riley) 

The inside of the crown of strawberry plants is hollowed out by a 
white, thick-bodied grub, one fourth of an inch long, with a brown head. 

The adult is a small, dark 
beetle, one fifth of an inch long, 
with three darker spots toward 
the outer edge of each wing 
cover. It emerges in the fall, 
hibernates, and lays eggs in the 





Fig. 



Fig. 297. — Adult of the Strawberry 
Crown-borer. Enlarged and nat- 
ural size. Original. 

spring. Usually only older 
plants are infested, because egg 
laying is over by the time that 
runners formed in midsummer 
have made any growth. There 
is one generation annually. 

The adults are unable to fly. Therefore, if old beds are attacked, 
care should be taken to make new plantings at some distance, and to 
use only new runners, which will not usually be found infested. In 
discarded beds the plants should be plowed out at once after the pick- 
ing season, raked into piles, and burned. This should be done not 
later than August, in order to kill the insect while still in the crowns. 
Where beds are moved every two or three seasons, no trouble need be 
feared from this insect. 



298. —Work of the Strawberry 
Crown-borer. Original. 



234 



PESTS OF ORCHARD AND SMALL FRUITS 



The Strawberry Crown Moth {Mgeria rutilans Hy. Edw.) 

On the Pacific coast straw- 
berries, blackberries, and rasp- 
berries are injured by a whitish, 
cylindrical borer, three fourths 
of an inch long when mature, 
which burrows in the crown of 
the plant. The adult is a 
clear-winged moth, resembling 
a wasp. Remedies include sub- 
mersion of infested fields, or 
the removal and destruction of 
infested plants. 




Fig. 299. — The Strawberry Crown Moth. 
Enlarged to twice natural size. Origi- 
nal. 



The Raspberry Root-borer {Bembecia marginaia Harr.) 

A pinkish grub works at the base of blackberry and raspberry canes, 
often girdling the cane just above the 
crown, causing the death of the shoot. 
The injury is apt to be noticed in the 
early part of the growing season, when vig- 




FiG. 300. — Work of the 
Raspberry Root-borer. 
Original. 




Fig. 301. — The Raspberry Root-borer. Larva, 
slightly enlarged. Original. 

orous canes suddenly wilt. Sometimes 
the grubs tunnel up in the pith for a few 
inches, and again they may work through 
the roots. 

Two years are required for the growth 



BORING IN THE TRUNK 



235 



of the larva. The adults are 
clear-winged moths, are on 
the wing in late summer, 
and lay eggs on the leaves, 
whence the larvse make their 
way to the base of the plant. 
Removal and destruction 
of infested canes and roots 
each spring is the only 
remedy. 




Fig. 302. 
borer. 



- Adult of the Raspberry Root- 
Slightly enlarged. Original. 



The Round-headed Apple-tree Borer {Saperda Candida Fab.) 

Apple trees, especially newly set stock, are subject to severe injury 
by a grub that bores in both sapwood and heartwood toward the base 




Fig. 303. — Work and larva of the Round-headed Apple-tree Borer. Original. 



of the trunk. Its work may be recognized by discolorations of the 
bark and the presence of castings pushed out of its burrows. The 
full-grown grub is an inch long, yellowish white, with a small, 
dark head, and a slightly enlarged, brown first segment. 

The parent is a handsome striped beetle. Eggs are laid on the bark, 



236 



PESTS OF ORCHARD AND SMALL FRUITS 



usually within a foot of the ground, in June and July. The larva 
requires three years for maturity, feeding first in the sapwood, but 
later penetrating to the heart of the tree. The food plants include 

apple, pear, quince, and 
related wild species. 

Cutting out with a 
knife or probing with 
a soft copper wire are 
effectual remedies, if 
carefully done each 
season. If a wire probe 
is used, nick the end 
so that rough barbs 
will be made and the 
borer thus drawn out. 
Mechanical protections 
tied around the trunk 
for two to three inches 
below the ground to a 
height of two or three 
feet will prevent egg 
laying. For this pur- 
pose one may use wood 
veneer, heavy paper, 
or even old news- 
papers, which usually 
will last through one 
season. Pure white 
lead and linseed oil 
may be painted on the 
trunks of apple trees, 
but ready mixed paint must not be used, since it may contain other 
oils that are injurious. Protective washes are of some benefit, but 
need to be renewed occasionally, and will not wholly prevent attack, 
though they will lessen the number of borers. 




Fig. 304. — The Round-headed Apple-tree borer. 
Burrows emerging at base of tree. Adult. 
Original. 



BORING IN THE TRUNK 237 

The Flat-headed Apple-tree Borer {Chrysobothris femorata Fab.) 




Fig. 305. 



The Flat-headed Apple-tree Borer. Work 
and larva. Original. 



The flat-headed apple-tree borer works only in the sapwood, often 
well up on the trunk, and completes its life round in one year. The 
grub has a flattened and enlarged 
segment just back of the head. Its 
parent is a small, metallic colored 
beetle. The food plants include 
apple, pear, peach, and various 
forest trees such as oak and maple. 

Eggs are laid in June and July. 
The grub makes shallow burrows, 
for the most part just under the 
outer bark. The insect hibernates 
as a grub in the burrows. 

Remedies are the same as for the round-headed apple-tree borer, 
but mechanical protectors must inclose the entire trunk. 

The Peach-borer {Sanninoidea exitiosa Say) 

An exudation of gum, often mixed with sawdust or frass, usually 
close to or just beneath the surface of the ground, is the outward e\i- 




FiG. 306. — Adult of the Flat-headed 
Apple-tree Borer. Original. 



238 



PESTS OF ORCHARD AND SMALL FRUITS 



dence of the work of the peach-tree borer. This may be observed at 
any time of year, but the gum is fresh in late summer or very early 




Fig. 307. — The Peach-borer. Larva in burrow. Slightly enlarged. Original. 

in the spring. If one will take a sharp knife and cut through the bark, 
one will find a burrow running in the sapwood, and at its end a yellowish 
or pinkish grub, with brown head. The length of a full-grown grub 
is about one inch. Peach trees are much weakened 
by the attack, and if several borers are present, 
the tree may be killed. Cherry and plum trees 
are infested to some extent by the same borer. 

The adult is a moth, but its clear wings give it 
much the appearance of a wasp. In the female 
only the hind wings are clear. Its general color 
is deep blue. The abdomen of the female is 
marked by an orange band. 

Eggs are laid in May, June, or July, directly on 
the bark, usually near the ground. The young 
grub works entirely in the sapwood, from the time 
when first hatched until the early part of the 
following summer, resting and remaining dormant 
during the winter months and resuming activity 
in the spring. The moths emerge from May until July. There is 
one generation each year. 




Fig. 308.— Cocoon 
of the Peach-borer. 
Original. 



BORING IN THE TRUNK 



239 



A common remedial measure consists in cutting out the grub with 
a sharp knife. This is best done in the fall or very early in the spring. 
The burrows may be probed with a soft wire nicked so as to form 




Fig. 309. — Adults, female and male, of the Peach-borer. Original. 



rough barbs ; the grub or a piece of it will then be drawn out with 
the wire. 

The best preventive measure consists in drawing up earth around 
the base of the tree in early spring, removing it toward the latter part 
of summer. The moths will not lay eggs on the trunk when this is 
done. The trunk may be protected with a cyhnder of paper tied 
around it, extending up 12 or 15 inches and down into the ground an inch 
or two. Washes applied to the tree to prevent egg laying are only 
partly successful. 



240 



PESTS OF ORCHARD AND SMALL FRUITS 



The Lesser Peach-borer {Synanthedon pictipes G. and R.) 

Old or weakened trees are apt to be attacked by this borer, which 
works in the soft, growing tissue anywhere in the trunk, from the 

ground to the main branches. 
The same insect also at- 
tacks plum, cherry, and wild 
cherry. 

The worm itself has much 
the appearance of the com- 
mon peach borer, but is 
smaller, rarely being over 
four fifths of an inch long, 
when full grown. In the 
South there are two genera- 
tions ; in the North, only one. The winter is passed by the larva in 
the trunk, and pupation takes place early in the spring. The adult is 




Fig 



310. — The Lesser Peach-borer. 
Slightly enlarged. Original. 





Fig. 311. — The Lesser Peach-borer. 
Pupa protruding from crack in 
bark. Original. 



Fig. 312. — Adult of the Lesser Peach- 
borer. Slightly enlarged. Orig- 
inal. 



a clear-winged moth. Eggs are laid on the trunk, especially in cracks 
or crevices. 

The best preventive measure is to keep trees growing vigorously 
and promptly to treat with white lead any chance wounds in the bark. 



BORING BENEATH BARK OF TRUNK OR LIMB 241 

Where borers are present, cut them out with a knife, or probe the 
burrows with a soft copper wire. Knife wounds should be painted 
with white lead. 



The Shot Hole Borer {Eccoptogaster (Scolytus) rugulosus'Rsitz.) 

Plum, pear, apple, peach, and cherry are attacked by this tiny insect. 
The outward evidence of injury is seen in numerous round holes in 
the bark, each hole clean-cut, 
about one sixteenth of an inch 
in diameter, as if the trunk or 
limb had received a charge of 
bird shot. As a rule only trees 
are attacked that have been 
weakened from some cause or 
other. 

If a piece of bark is removed 
where the holes are numerous, 
shallow galleries will be found 
beneath. These are of char- 
acteristic form. A central 
gallery, one or two inches long, 
runs parallel with the axis of 
the trunk or hmb, while from 
this many other galleries di- 
verge, quite small at the start 
but growing rapidly larger. 

A small, dark beetle makes 
the main gallery as its brood chamber, laying its eggs in pockets 
along each side. Grubs hatch from these, bore the diverging chan- 
nels as they grow, and finally come out as adult beetles, cutting 
round emergence holes through the bark. 

In northern sections there are two generations each year ; in the 
South there are three. 

To control, remove and burn dead or dying trees in which the insect 
is breeding in large numbers. They will invariably spread from these 




Fig. 313.— Burrows of the Shot Hole 
Borer, disclosed by removal of bark. 
Original. 



242 



PESTS OF ORCHARD AND SMALL FRUITS 




to others in the orchard that 
chance not to be making vig- 
orous growth. Trim back and 
fertihze trees only moderately 
attacked. Apply a coat of 
thick carbolated whitewash in 
early spring, again in June, and 
again in August. Use 1 pint of 
crude carbolic acid to 10 gallons 
of the whitewash. 




Fig. 314. — The Shot Hole Borer. Sec- Fig. 315. — The Shot Hole Borer, 
tion of bark over burrows, showing exit Adult. Enlarged and natural size, 
holes. Original. Original. 



The Peach Bark-beetle 

{Phloeophthorus liminaris Harr.) 
Injury is similar to that of the shot 
hole borer. The bark of peach, plum, 
or cherry trees is peppered with many 
small, round holes. If the tree is not 
already too much weakened, consider- 
able gum will flow from these holes. 
Removal of a section of bark will show 
the difference between the work of 
this insect and that of the shot hole 
borer : the main channels made by this 
pest run around the axis of the trunk 
or limb, while those of the shot hole 
borer run parallel to it.«* 




Fig. 316. — Burrows of the Peach 
Bark-beetle. Original. 



GRUBS BORING IN THE CANE 



243 



There are two generations each year. The 
adult beetles hibernate in cells dug out in the 
inner bark, often in healthy trees. In the 
spring they come out, select weakened trees, 
and bore the main channel just under the bark, 
laying eggs in the sides of this channel. The 
grubs work out at right angles, making di- 
verging burrows. A second lot of beetles ap- 
pear in August, construct channels as before, 
and from their grubs come the hibernating 
adults. 

Control measures are the same as those recommended for the shot 
hole borer. 




Fig. 317. — The Peach 
Bark-beetle. Adult. 
Enlarged and natural 
size. Original. 



The Currant Borer {Mgeria tipuliformis Clerck) 

Currants or gooseberries are injured or killed by the work of this 
borer. The infested plants usually show the attack first by their 
unthrifty appearance; the next season they 
fail to leaf out. 

The borer is a yellowish grub, half an inch 
long when full grown. It works in the center 
of the cane, spends the winter within the 





Fig. 318. — Adult of the Currant Borer. 
Enlarged and natural size. Original. 



Fig. 319. — Work of 
the Currant Borer. 
Original. 



244 



PESTS OF ORCHARD AND SMALL FRUITS 



^^Uk^^fll!- 



Fig. 321. —The Red- 
necked C ane-borer. 
Larva, enlarged to twice 
natural size. Original. 



cane near its base, resumes work in the spring and soon transforms. 
The adult is a clear-winged moth, and emerges in June through a hole 
in the cane cut by the grub before transforming. 

Removal and destruction of infested canes in the fall or spring is 
the only remedy. 

The Red-necked Cane-borer {Agrilus ruficollis Fab.) 

A whitish grub, one half to three fourths 
of an inch long, with an enlarged head, bores 

in the canes of black- 

berry and raspberry. 
In the former the bur- 
rows make a spiral 
girdle just beneath 
the bark, and cause 
a slight swelling, re- 
sulting in the death 
of the cane the fol- 
lowing season. The galls occur usually within 
two or three feet of the base of the cane. In 
raspberries no serious damage is done. 

The adult is a rather slender beetle, one 
third of an inch long, with dark wing covers 
and a copper-colored thorax or " neck." Eggs 
are laid in 
June and 
July at the 
base of 
leafstalks. The grubs pupate 
within the canes, above the galls, 
and remain there until the fol- 
lowing May. 

Before May 1 remove and de- 
stroy infested canes, including 
those of wild blackberry near at 
hand. 




FIG..320. — Workof 
the Red-necked 
Cane-borer. Orig- 
inal. 




Fig. 322.— Adult of the Red-necked 
Cane-borer. Enlarged and natural 
size. Original, 



GRUBS OR MAGGOTS IN CANE OR STEM 



245 



The Raspberry Cane-borer (Oberea bimaculata Oliv.) 
Raspberry or blackberry shoots attacked by this insect wilt toward 
the end, and often bend sharply over. Within will be found a slender 
grub, which later bores down 
through the cane, pupates in 
•the base of it, and emerges the 
following June as a slender, 
dark beetle, with long antennse 
and yellow thorax. The grub, 
when full grown, is one inch long 





Fig. 323. —Adult of the Rasp- 
berry Cane-borer. Slightly en- 
larged. Original. 



Fig. 



324. — Work of the Raspberry 
Cane-borer. Original. 



and has a small brown head. Two years are required for the entire 
life round. If a cane that has wilted is examined closely, it will 
be found that the beetle has girdled it at tw^o points with a row of 
punctures. The egg is laid between these two rows. 

Rem.ove and destroy the upper parts of infested canes as soon as the 
presence of the insect is discovered. If this work is delayed until late 
summer, it is necessary to remove the entire cane in order to get the 
grub. 

The Raspberry Cane-maggot {Phorhia rubivora Coq.) 

The tips of the young shoots wilt and droop as when attacked by the 
cane-borer described above, but the canes do not show the character- 



246 



PESTS OF ORCHARD AND SMALL FRUITS 



istic punctures and do not bend sharply at one place. The drooping 
is due to the presence of a maggot which burrows in the pith of the 
cane and more or less girdles it from the inside. 

The adult is a two-winged fly, and emerges in the spring. The insect 
remains as a pupa within the cane over winter. Cut and destroy 
infested canes as soon as the wilting of the tips is observed. 



The Currant Stem-girdler {Janus integer Nort.) 

Currant shoots wilt and bend over sharply, and usually the tip 
soon breaks off and falls to the ground, leaving a square-cut stub. 
Within the remaining stalk, a few inches below the cut, will be found 
a hght yellow larva half an inch long, wider toward the head, and pro- 
vided with a forked spine at the hind end. 

The parent insect is a sawfly. The girdhng of the stem is done by 
the adult just after depositing its egg in the 
shoot and at a point just above the egg. The 
larva hibernates in the main shoot. It seldom 
burrows more than six inches below the stub. 

Infested shoots should be cut off eight or ten 
inches below the stub. 

The Grape-cane Gall-maker 

{Amjjeloglypter sesostris Lee.) 

A tiny snout beetle, one eighth of an inch 
long, sometimes injures grape canes in the 



1 

\ 


.1 

t 


i 

1^ 




Fig. 3_:o. \\ urk of 
the Grape-cane Gall- Fiu. 326. — Adult of the Grape-cane Gall-maker, 
maker. Original. Enlarged and natural size. Original. 



GRUBS IN STEM OR SHOOT 



247 



spring by puncturing the new wood. The part injured later develops 
into a gall an inch or an inch and a half long, which shows a deep 
scar on one side. Eggs are laid in the punctures, and grubs develop 
in the pith of the cane. The adults come out in late summer, and hide 
in rubbish over winter. 

Since the beetles feed to some extent on the leaf and stem tissues, 
they may be poisoned by spraying with arsenate of lead or Paris green. 
Galls should be cut off and destroyed before the time of emergence of 
adults in late summer. 



The Grapevine Girdler {Ampeloglypter ater Lee.) 

This insect in its adult stage is similarto the grape-cane gall-maker, 
but its color is black. It injures terminal shoots by girdling them, 
so that the end of the shoot later falls to the ground. The young or 
grub develops within the shoot. The 
adult emerges in the fall and hibernates 
in the leaves or trash. 

Spraying with arsenate of lead or 
Paris green in May or June will kill 
the beetles. In early summer cut off 
the ends of canes .showing the charac- 
teristic girdling, making the cut a few 
inches below the girdle. 

The Blackberry Pithy-gall 

{Diastrophus turgidus Bass.) 

Curious, hard enlargements of the 
canes of blackberries are caused by 
small, fleshy larvse which hatch from 
eggs laid by a black gall-fly. Several 

larv« inhabit each gall, remaining Fig. 327. - The Blackberry 

\ Pithy-gall. Original, 

within it as pupse over winter. The 

species is not abundant enough to be a pest, but galls should be re- 
moved whenever found. 




248 



PESTS OF ORCHARD AND SMALL FRUITS 



The Peach Twig-moth {Anarsia lineatella Zell.) 

In the spring, about the time of blooming of peach trees, terminal 
clusters of leaves here and there wilt, and the twigs soon die. Close 

examination will show 
that a tiny borer has 
been at work in the 
twigs, eating out the 
inner substance for 
an inch or so, or dig- 
ging out a hole in 
one side. The larva 
itself, if discovered, 
will be found to be 
quite small, with a 
dark head and dark 
terminal segment. 

Shortly the little 
gray moths, expand- 
ing about half an 
inch, are about, and 
a second brood is on 
the way. Later there 
is still another brood. 
The larvae of these 
later generations 
often work in the 
young fruit, causing 
drops of gum to 
exude. 

The winter is passed 
as a larva, hidden away in a little chamber just under the outer 
bark, in the axil of a new shoot or bud. To control, spray with hme 
sulphur, at the time that the buds are first swelling, so as to kill the 
larva within its winter home. If this treatment is omitted, spray 
with arsenate of lead, 4 pounds to 50 gallons of water, just as the 




Fig. 



328. — Work of the Peach Twig-moth, 
Original. 



BORERS IN BRANCH OR TWIG 



249 



buds first begin to open. The later treatment is designed to poison 
the borer when it begins work on the twigs. 




Fig. 329. —Adult Peach Twig-moth. Enlarged and natural size. Original. 



The Shot-borer {Xyleborus dispar Fab. (pijri Peck)) 
A tiny black beetle, one tenth of an inch long, bores into twigs 
branches in late summer and deposits eggs. The resulting grub 
in the twig, becoming full grown the following June.' 
In the spring close observation will reveal one or more 
round punctures, a twentieth of 
an inch in diameter. Infested 
twigs are apt to wilt and should 
be cut off and burned as soon 
as the wilting is noted. 



or small 
burrows 











-#:-i' 




i 


1 






Pi 



Fig. 330. — Work of 
the Shot-borer. 
Original. 



Fig. 331.— Adults of the Shot- 
borer. Enlarged and natural 
size. Original. 



Fig. 332. — Section 
through branch, 
showing work of 
the Shot-borer. 
Original. 



250 



PESTS OF ORCHARD AND SMALL FRUITS 



The Apple Twig-borer 

{Schistoceros hamatus Fab.) 

In early summer the twigs of apple, 
cherry, or pear, or the canes of grape 
may show characteristic little tunnels, 
beginning just above a shoot or bud, 
and extending down a short distance 
in the main stem or branch. They 
are the work of a small, dark brown 
beetle, about one third of an inch in 
length, which soon deserts its temporary 
burrow and is not likely to be seen. 

The insect breeds in diseased wood, 
hibernating within the same. It is 
troublesome in the neighborhood of 
Fig. 333.— Work of the Apple piles of recent trimmings and the like, 
Twig-borer. Original. and these should be removed and de- 

stroyed. The tunnels in the twigs of fruit trees are made apparently 
in feeding, or for temporary shelter. 





Fig. 334. — The Apple Twig-borer, enlarged and natural size. Original. 



The Twig-girdler {Oncideres cingulata Say) 

Pecan trees and others are injured by a dark gray beetle half an inch 
long, which girdles twigs or smaller branches. A clean cut is made 



GIRDLING THE TWIGS 



251 




by the beetle, usually deep enough for the twig to break entirely off. 

The beetles are at work in late summer. 

After girdling a 

twig the beetle lays 

eggs in it, and the 

larvae bore in the 

twig, becoming full 

grown the following 

summer. There is 

only one generation 

each year. 

Where young trees are seriously attacked, the 

beetles should be hunted out and destroyed. All 

twigs cut off should be 

gathered up and burned. 

The Twig-pruner 

{Elaphidion villosum Fab.) 



Fig. 335. — The Twig-girdler. 
Original. 





Fig. 336. — Work of 
the Twig-girdler. 
Original. 



Fig. 337. — Work of 
the Twig-pruner. 
Original. 



Various kinds of fruit and 
shade trees sometimes suffer 
the loss of terminal twigs, girdled by this insect. 
The work is done by the larva or grub of an 
elongate, dark brown beetle, a half to three 
fourths of an inch long. Eggs are laid in the 
twigs in July, and the grub feeds within, finally 
gnawing a circu- 
lar groove as far 
as the outer 
bark, so that the 
twig breaks off, 
taking the grub 
with it. The 
fallen twig then ^^^ 338. -Adult of the Twig- 
serves as its pruner. Original. 




252 



PESTS OF ORCHARD AND SMALL FRUITS 



home until the following spring, when it trans- 
forms and comes out as an adult. The remedy- 
is to gather and destroy the fallen twigs. 

Tree Crickets {(Ecanthus spp.) 

Small, light green, and rather slender crickets 

make long rows of punctures in the canes of 

raspberries and blackberries, and in tender 

twigs of fruit trees, 

the injury often 

resulting in the 

death of the cane 

or twig. If a twig 

showing these char- 
acteristic punctures 

is split, it will be 

found that the 

holes were made as 

a place to deposit eggs. The species usually 

responsible is (Ecanthus nigricornis Walk. 
The punctures are made in the latter part of 

summer, and the eggs hatch in the spring. 

There is one brood in the North, but two in the 
South. Both young and adults feed on other insects, and should be 
regarded as beneficial. 





Fig. 340. — a Tree Cricket. 
Original. 



Fig. 339. — Punc- 
tures made by Tree 
Crickets. Original. 




Fig. 341. — Section through twig, showing punctures of Tree 
Crickets in detail. Enlarged. Original. 



PUNCTURING THE TWIGS 



253 



Injured twigs may be removed in early spring 
or in the course of winter pruning. 

The Buffalo Tree-hopper (Ceresa bubalus Fab.) 

The twigs and smaller limbs of orchard trees 
sometimes show regular rows of oval scars, due 
to the egg-laying 
punctures of a 
curious little in- 
sect, the buffalo 
tree-hopper. The 
scars do not heal, 
and, if numerous, 
weaken the twigs. 

The insect that 
makes the punc- 






FiG. 343. — Work of 
Buffalo Tree-hop- 
per. Original. 



Fig. 344. — Work 
of the Periodical 
Cicada. Original. 



Fig. 342.— The Buffalo Tree- 
hopper. Enlarged and natu- 
ral size. Original. 

tures is triangular in shape, 
light green in color, three 
eighths of an inch long, and 
has a two-horned enlarge- 
ment at the front of its body. 
The young that hatch from 
the eggs do not feed in or on 
the twig, but on various weeds. 

In control, weeds should be kept down in the 
orchard, and twigs that show many of the egg-lay- 
ing slits may be pruned in winter. 

The Periodical Cicada ( Tibicen septendecim Linn.) 

Occasional injury to twigs of fruit trees is re- 
corded due to egg-laying punctures of the periodi- 
cal cicada. This insect is closely related to the 
" dog-day cicada," or " locust," which is heard 



254 



PESTS OF ORCHARD AND SMALL FRUITS 



sounding its long, high-pitched note in summer. Usually the only 
notable cases of injury are to newly set fruit trees, which are so small 





Fig. 346. 



Fig. 345. — Emergence of Adult Cicada from pupal skin. Original. 

as to make the work in the twigs really serious. The injury takes 
the form of a row of regular punctures in the twig, each puncture 

with a frayed or torn margin. 

Definite " broods " of this insect 
exist in various parts of the 
country, and these have been 
studied and mapped so that the 
coming of the adults can be pre- 
dicted. The immature stages of 
the cicada are passed in the soil, 
and either 13 or 17 years are re- 
quired for this part of the insect's 
growth, depending on the section and the brood. At the end of this 
time the adults suddenly appear in large numbers, lay eggs, and 
another life cycle begins, as before. 

Bordeaux mixture appears to act as a repellent when sprayed on 
young trees that are threatened with injury. 

The San Jose Scale {Aspidiotus perniciosus Comst.) 

This serious pest of fruit trees, shade trees, and ornamentals is an 
insidious insect, and seldom is recognized until it has gained a foothold 
and has already caused marked injury. The first evidence of its pres- 
ence usually noted is the weakening or dying of twigs. On further 



The Periodical Cicada. 
Original. 



SMALL SCALES ON BARK OF TRUNK OR BRANCH 255 

examination such twigs are found to have a scurfy or ashy look, the 
bark being crusted with hundreds of minute scales, no larger than a 
very small pin head. If a sliver of the outer bark is cut away, the 
inner, soft bark will be found to show more or less reddish discolora- 




FiG. 347. — The San Jose Scale. Above, natural size. Center, enlarged. Be- 
low, a single scale, enlarged. Original. 



tion. On peach trees the scale is apt to gain a foothold first on the 
larger limbs, rather than the small twigs. When the scales are quite 
numerous, they will be found also on the leaves and fruit, as well as the 
bark. On the fruit of apple, peach, or pear a reddish discoloration 
surrounds isolated scales. Peach trees frequently are killed by the 



256 



PESTS OF ORCHARD AND SMALL FRUITS 



insect in three years. Apple and pear trees, and various ornamental 
shrubs, usually manage to exist for some time longer. 

If a hand lens is used for closer examination, it will be found that 
each scale is circular in shape, rather flat, dark in color, and has in its 

center a small raised spot, like a 
nipple, surrounded by a shght de- 
pression. Smaller, oval scales 
represent the males. 

There are several generations 
each season. The species hves 
through the winter as half-grown 
females. With the coming of 
warm weather these complete 
their growth, the tiny winged 
males appear, and in a few days 
each female begins giving birth 
to exceedingly small, living young. 
The latter crawl about over the 
bark for a few hours, then settle 
down, insert their sucking beaks, 
and soon are covered with a pro- 
tecting wax scale. They do not move thereafter. The total prog- 
eny of a single female in one season is enormous. 

The insect is especially likely to be introduced on nursery stock, 
and the greatest care should be taken in the purchase of trees for an 
orchard. If stock has been properly fumigated with hydrocyanic 
acid gas, the scales will be killed. 

Treatment of trees or shrubs consists of spraying in the dormant 
season with lime-sulphur solution. The best time of application is in 
the spring, just before the buds swell. Where the infestation is severe, 
it is well to spray in the fall, after the leaves have dropped, and again 
in the spring. 

For small shrubs, and the like, if it is not desired to use the lime- 
sulphur spray, a solution of whale-oil soap, 2 pounds to 1 gallon of 
water, may be applied in winter. The potash soap should be used. 




Fig. 348. 



— Work of San Jose Scale on 
pear. Original. 



SMALL SCALES ON BARK OF TRUNK OR BRANCH 257 



Several other species closely resemble the San Jose scale, and on 
superficial examination can hardly be distinguished from it. They 
have not, however, so distinct a 
ring and nipple. 

The Putnam's Scale {Aspi- 
diotus ancylus Putnam) infests 
many kinds of fruit and shade 
trees. It has one generation 
annually. 

The Cherry Scale (Aspidiotiis 
forbesi Johns.) is found on the 
bark of cherry and other fruit 
trees. It is lighter in color 
than the San Jose scale. 

The European Fruit-scale 
{Aspidiotus ostreceformis Curt.) 
attacks principally plums, but 
occasionally other fruits, except 
the peach. It produces several 
generations annually and is 
often a serious pest. 

For all of these the best treatment is a winter spraying with lime 
sulphur. 




Fig. 349. — Branch incrusted with Put- 
nam's Scale. Original. 




Fig. 350. — Cherry Scale. Enlarged to seven times natural size. Original. 
S 



258 



FESTS OF ORCHARD AND SMALL FRUITS 



The Oyster-shell Scale (Lepidosaphes ulnii Linn.) 

The shape of this scale is quite hke that of a narrow, miniature 
oyster shell. It is about one eighth of an inch long and is easily ob- 
served without a lens. It 
commonly infests a great 
variety of deciduous trees 
and shrubs, and when 
very abundant, is capable 
of causing the death of its 
host. 

The young scales ap- 
pear in May or June, 
crawl about over the bark 
for six or eight hours, and 
then insert their beaks, 
settle down, and secrete 
the wax covering under 
which they remain for the 
rest of their life. The 
males are winged. Eggs 
are laid in fall, beneath 
the scale covering the 
female, and remain there 
until the next spring. In 
the South there are two 
broods; in the North 
one. 

Regular, annual spray- 
ing in winter with lime 
sulphur for San Jose scale will hold this insect sufficiently in check. 
For direct, remedial treatment of badly infested trees this wash is 
not sufficiently active or dependable. The only remedies that may 
be depended on are a spraying in early spring with linseed oil 
emulsion; or an application of 12 per cent kerosene emulsion at the 




Fig. 351. — Oyster-shell Scale. Enlarged to 
twice natural size. Original. 



CONSPICUOUS SCALES ON THE BARK 

time that the young are hatching. The 
date for the latter must be determined 
by close watchinjr. 



259 




Fig. 352.— Oys„er-shell .Scale. Greatly en- 
larged. Original. 

The Scurfy Scale 

(Chionaspis furfura Fitch) 
The scurfy scale is found principally 
on apple, but occasionally on pear, 
peach, cherry, currant, and gooseberry.' 
The scale of the female is small, flat, 
whitish, and broadly oval. With these 




Fig. 353. — Scurfy Scale. 
The larger are females; 
the smaller are males. 
Slightly enlarged. Orig- 
inal. 




will be found the scales of the 
male, which are smaller, narrow, 
and longitudinally ridged. 

There is one generation annually. 
Eggs are laid in the fall, beneath 
the scale of the female, and from 

^ these hatch the minute young, in 

Fig. 354.— Scurfy Scale. Greatly ^^^ spring.. Only the male is 
enlarged. Original. winged. 



260 



FESrS OF ORCHARD AND SMALL FRUITS 



Spraying with lime sulphur in winter, as for San Jose scale, will 
control this pest. 



The Rose Scale {Aulacaspis rosw Bouche) 

Roses, blackberries, and raspberries frequently become infested with 
white scales which cover the canes. The individual scales, when full 
grown, are about one tenth of an inch long, thin, flat, and snowy white. 
There may be three or more generations in a year. 
Judicious pruning will help to hold them in 
check. Lime sulphur may be used as a winter 
spray. Or, spray in winter with whale-oil soap, 
1 pound to 1 gallon of water. 

The Cottony Maple-scale {Pulvinaria vitis Linn.) 

This large and easily recognized scale attacks 
grape vines and various fruit and shade trees. 
It is conspicuous in early spring, when the fluffy, 
cottony secretion containing the eggs is pushed 
out from under the body of the female. There 
is one generation annually, the female over- 
wintering on the bark. 

The means of control is to spray with 10 per 
cent kerosene emulsion when the young are 
hatching in the spring. 

The European Fruit Lecanium 
{Lecanium corni Bouche) 

The smaller limbs and twigs of fruit trees are 
Fig. 355. Cottony attacked by a species of large scale, one eighth 
^^^Y of an inch long and nearly hemispherical. When 

young, it is yellowish, but when older, is dark 
and shiny. The upper surface of the insect is hardened, thus pro- 
tecting the softer parts beneath ; in other words, the scaly covering 




CONSPICUOUS SCALES ON THE BARK 



2G] 




Fig. 356.— The European Fruit Lecanium. 
Enlarged to twice natural size. Orig- 
inal. 



is really a part of the insect 
itself and is not detachable as 
with the San Jose or oyster- 
shell scales. 

The best remedial measure 
is a winter spraying with 
crude oil emulsion at 12 per 
cent strength or distillate oil 
emulsion at 5 per cent strength. 
Distillate oil emulsion is prepared by dissolving 8 pounds of whale- 
oil soap in 3 gallons of hot water, adding 5 gallons of distillate oil and 

at once pumping the mixture 
back on itself. To dilute for 
a 5 per cent strength add 1 
gallon of emulsion to ll^ gal- 
lons of water. 

The Terrapin Scale {Eideca- 
nium yiigrofasciatum Perg.) 
The terrapin scale is nearly 
hemispherical, about one 
twelfth of an inch long, nearly 
as wide and high, and reddish 
in color. The surface is marked 
with darker, radiating spots or 
streaks, and usually there is a 
series of shallow depressions 
near the margin. The food 
plants include peach, apple, 
plum, cherry, quince, pear, and 
various shade trees. 

The scale is difficult to kill. 
The best remedy is spraying with 
20 per cent kerosene emulsion in spring, just before growth starts. Do 
not apply so much liquid that it will run down the trunk of the tree. 




Fig. 357. — Terrapin Scale. Below, a 
single scale, enlarged. Original. 



262 



PESTS OF ORCHARD AND SMALL FRUITS 



Fig. 358. 



The Spotted Pelidnota {Pelidnota punctata Linn.) 

Heavy-bodied, slow-moving beetles 
sometimes are found in considerable 
numbers on the leaves of grapes. 
They are an inch long, golden yellow, 
and each wing cover is marked with 
three small black dots, widely sepa- 
rated. The immature stages are 
passed in rotting wood. The beetles 
are usually controlled by hand pick- 




•The Spotted PeHdnota 
Original. 

ing, but may be poisoned with applica- 
tions of Paris green or arsenate of lead. 

The Light-loving Anomala 

(Anomala lucicola Fab.) 
Occasionally the foliage of grapes is 
riddled by brownish beetles, one third of 
an inch long, in shape and appearance like 

the com- 





FiG. 359. — The Light-loving 
Anomala. Enlarged to twice 
natural size. Original. 



Fig. 360. — Anomala marginata. 
Enlarged. Original. 



mon June 

beetles, but smaller. The larvae Uve in 
the soil and are not injurious. The 
beetles are readily killed by spraying 
with arsenate of lead or Paris green. 

An allied species, Anomala marginata 
Fab., is found in the South, where it 
sometimes destroys the foliage of apples, 

grapes, raspberries or blackberries. It is 

half an inch long and light brownish in 

color. 

Still another species with similar habits 

is Anomala undulata Mels., one third of an 

inch long, yellowish in color, and marked 

with black. -c orn a i ^ 

Fig. 361. — Anomala undu- 

The above are pests only at compara- lata. Enlarged. Original. 




BEETLES INJURING THE FOLIAGE 



263 



tively rare intervals. Prompt application of Paris green or arsenate 
of lead will poison them. 



The Cherry Leaf-beetle 

An oval, red beetle, one fourth 
of an inch long, with black legs 
and antennae, feeds on the leaves 
of cherry, plum, and peach, and 
when numerous riddles the foli- 
age. The larvae also feed on the 
leaves. The pupal stage is passed 
in the ground, and there are two 
broods annually. The remedy is 
prompt spraying with arsenate 
of lead or Paris green. 



{Galerucella cavicollis Lee.) 




Fig. 362.— The Cherry Leaf-beetle. 
Enlarged and natural size. Original. 



The Strawberry Leaf-beetle {Typophorus canellus Fab.) 

A chunky, dark beetle, one eighth of an inch long, with four oblique, 
black patches on its wings, occasionally appears in large numbers in 

strawberry fields early in 
the season, and riddles 
the leaves. The larvae 
or grubs which follow 
shortly are small and 
thick bodied, and feed on 
the roots of the plants. 
The beetles hibernate as 
adults. 

Prompt spraying with 
Paris green or arsenate 
of lead will check the 
beetles. 

Another species with 
•Work of the Strawberry Leaf- Somewhat^ similar feed- 
beetle. Original. ing habits, Colaspis 




Fig. 363. 



264 PESTS OF ORCHARD AND SMALL FRUITS 

brunnea Fab., is occasionally in e\'idence on strawberry or grape, and 
rarely on garden or field crops. It is yellowish, oval, rather convex, 





Fig. 364. — Larva ot the Straw- Fig. 365. — The Strawberry Leaf-beetle, 

berry Leaf-beetle. Enlarged Adult, enlarged and natural size. Orig- 

and natural size. Original. inal. 

and about one fifth of an inch long. The grubs feed on the roots. 
There is a single brood annually. Arsenicals will poison the adults. 





Fig. 366.— Pupa of the Grape Fig. 367. — The Grape Colaspis. Adult, 

Colaspis. Enlarged and natu- enlarged and natural size. Original, 

ral size. Original. 



The Grape Flea-beetle {Haltica chalybea Ilhg.) 

Early in the growing season, the swelling buds of grapes are eaten 
into and destroyed, and as the tender leaves unfold they are riddled. 
The beetles which are responsible for this damage are small, steely- 



FLEA-BEETLES INJURING THE FOLIAGE 



265 



blue insects, one eighth to one fifth of an inch long, and rather broad. 
They are able to fly readily and jump quickly. 

Eggs are soon laid, and the larvae feed on the surface of the leaves, 
leaving the veins untouched. A pupal stage is passed in the ground, 
and there is a sec- 
ond generation in 
midsummer; but 
damage by this later 
brood is not par- 
ticularly noticeable 
because the foliage 
is relatively more 
abundant. 

To control, spray 
with 4 pounds of 
arsenate of lead 
and 1 gallon of 
cheap molasses to 
50 gallons of water. 
Apply the spray 
early, at the first 
appearance of the 

beetles, before they have opportunity to destroy the buds. Where 
only a few vines are concerned, the adults may be jarred ofT onto 
sheets, if the work is done early in the morning before the beetles 




Fig. 368. — Work of the Grape Flea-beetle. Oritmal. 




Fig. 369. — Larva of the Grape Flea- 
beetle. Enlarged and natural size. 
Original. 




Fig. 370. — The Grape Flea-beetle. 
Adult, enlarged and natural size. 
Original. 



26G 



PESTS OF ORCHARD AND SMALL FRUITS 



become active. Cleaning up 
rubbish will help to reduce 
the numbers of overwintering 
adults. 



The Strawberry Flea-beetle 

(Haltica ignita Illig.) 

A shining, active beetle, one 
fifth of an inch long, appears 
in early summer on the leaves 
of strawberry and other plants. 
Its shape is rather oblong, and 
its color ranges from golden to 
greenish, or deep blue. Shortly 
afterward the larvae may be 
found on the foliage, usually 
on the under leaves where they are concealed. They are almost black 

and one fourth of an inch long. 

The body surface is covered with 

low tubercles. 

Pupation takes place in the soil. 

In the South there are two or three 

generations annually ; in the North 

one. 

The pest is easily checked by 
Fig. 372.— The Strawberry Flea- . , . . , 

beetle. Enlarged and natural size. sP^aymg or dustmg With arsenate 
Original. of lead or Paris green. 




Fig. 371. 



Work of the Strawberry Flea- 
beetle. Original. 




The Tent Caterpillar (Malacosoma americana Fab.) 

In the spring leaves of apple, wild cherry, and other plants are 
stripped by this caterpillar. Its work is characterized by the forma- 
tion of a conspicuous web or nest in the forks of smaller branches, 
the caterpillars spending part of their time on or in this nest and going 



LARGE CATERPILLARS EATING THE LEAVES 267 

out from it to feed on the leaves. They do not form any webs on the 
leaves, but only the tent in the forks. 




Fig. 373.— The Tent Caterpillar. Original. 



The full-grown caterpillar is about two inches long. Its body is 
black, ornamented with a well-defined white line down the middle of 
its back, and with a row of blue spots along each side. The adult 
moth is dull reddish in color. 



268 



PESTS OF ORCHARD AND SMALL FRUITS 



The eggs are laid in a compact mass, encircling a twig, and remain 
where placed until the following spring. The caterpillars hatch as 
soon as the fohage is out. 

Nests and caterpillars may 
be destroyed by burning with 
a torch, selecting a time 
when the caterpillars are at 
rest on or in their web. 





Fig. 374. — Nest of the Tent Caterpillar. 
Original. 




Fig. 375. — Egg-mass of the Tent 
Caterpillar. Original. 



Fig. 376. 



Adult of the Tent Caterpillar. 
Original. 



They will be found there when the weather is cloudy or stormy, or 
early in the morning before the sun is well up. Instead of burning, 
the nests may be sprayed with 25 per cent kerosene emulsion or with 



LARGE CATERPILLARS EATING THE LEAVES 



269 



pure kerosene, taking care not to get this on the surrounding foUage. 
Spraying the foHage with Paris green or arsenate of lead will easily 

poison the caterpillars. 

The Forest Tent Caterpillar 

{Malacosoma disstria Hbn.) 
The common name of this species 

is misleading, for it does not construct 

a tent. It is, however, closely related 

to the tent cater- 
pillar, and has ac- 
quired a similar 

name. While often 

a forest pest, it 

is apt to attack 

fruit tree foliage 

as well, and may 

strip the trees 

when abundant. 
The full-grown 

caterpillar is two 

inches long, dark 

in color, and has 

a row of conspicu- 

ous, diamond- 
shaped, 
white spots 
down the 
middle of 
its back. 
Eggs are 

laid in a compact ring around 
twigs, and covered with a shin- 

T^ oT.^ A J 1^ r xi t:^ 4. rr . lug varnish. The young cater- 
FiG. 379. — Adult of the Forest Tent ^ . j ^ 




Fig. 377. — The Forest Tent 
Caterpillar. Original. 





Fig. 378. — Egg-mass 
of the Forest Tent 
Caterpillar. Orig- 
inal. 



Caterpillar. Original. 



pillars appear early in sprmg. 



270 



PESTS OF ORCHARD AND SMALL FRUITS 



They have a habit of traveUng back and forth up and down the trunk 
and limbs of a tree, and sometimes collect in masses. 

On orchard trees they are readily controlled by poison sprays, 
preferably arsenate of lead. 




Fig. 380. — The Yellow-necked Caterpillar. Original. 



The Yellow-necked Caterpillar (Datana ministra'Dra.) 

In late summer 
yellow and black 
striped caterpillars 
feed on orchard 
foliage, working in 
colonies and strip- 
ping a single limb 
as they go. The 
mature caterpil- 
lar is nearly two 
inches long. Just back of the head is an orange ridge. When dis- 
turbed, the caterpillars raise both head and tail into the air, holding 
fast by the middle. 

The eggs are laid on 
the leaves in midsum- 
mer, by a brownish 
moth. Winter is passed 
as a pupa in the soil. 
There is one generation 
annually. 

Removal of the colo- 
nies of caterpillars by 
cutting off the twig or 
limb is the usual pro- 
cedure. They may easily 

be killed by spraying with Paris green or arsenate of lead. Where 
orchards are given a spraying with arsenicals the first of August this 
pest will not be in evidence. 




Fig. 381. 



■Adult of the Yellow-necked Cater- 
pillar. Original. 



LARGE CATERPILLARS FEEDING IN COLONIES 271 
The Red-humped Apple Caterpillar (Schizura concinna S. and A.) 




Fig. 382. — The Red-humped Apple Caterpillar. Original. 

This species has the same habits and life round as the preceding. 
It is abundant in late summer, and feeds in colonies. Like the other, 

it jerks its head and tail into the air 
when alarmed. The body of the cat- 
erpillar is spiny, and is marked with 
fine, narrow stripes of black and yel- 
low. A short distance back of the 
head is a hump which is conspicu- 



FiG. 383. — Eggs of the Red- 
humped Apple Caterpil- 
lar. Enlarged. Original. 

Control is the same 
as for the preceding 
species. The two will 
be found on orchard 
foliage at about the same 
time of year. 




OU'^hr ,,o,] 
















,J- V 






•- 


."' ■■ n»-^ 









' - 'M 


■>.^^ 


fc ^^•- 


^^^;^'-X 


% 


1 


^ 


f 



Fig. 384. — Adult of the Red-humped Apple 
Caterpillar. Slightly enlarged. Original. 



272 



PESTS OF ORCHARD AND SMALL FRUITS 




Fig. 385.- 



Caterpillars of Hawk Moths 
Large and conspicuous worms two or three inches long are often 

found on the foliage of grapes and Virginia creeper. They vary in 

markings, but 

usually have a 
prominent spine 
or a distinct hard 
tubercle at the 
hind end. They 
feed singly, have 
enormous appe- 
tites, and will 
easily strip parts 
of the vines bare 
of leaves. 

There are three 
or four species 
commonly to be 

seen. All are the immature stages of swift-flying, heavy-bodied 

moths, observed usually in the evening, poised over flowers, sipping 

the nectar, and known 

locally in some sections as 

" humming-bird moths." 

The pupal stage is passed 

in the soil. There is one 

generation annually. 
The Grapevine Hog 

Caterpillar (Ampelopha- 

gus myron Cram.) is two 

inches long, yellowish 

green, has two white 

stripes down the back 

and seven oblique stripes 

on each side, and seven pink or red spots down the middle of the 

back. There is a horn near the hind end. The Achemon Sphinx 



Adult of the Grapevine Hog Caterpillar. 
Original. 




Fig. 386. 



■The Achemon Sphinx. Slightly 
reduced. Original. 



CONSPICUOUS CATERPILLARS DESTROYING FOLIAGE 273 

(Pholus achemon Dru.) is three inches or more long when full grown, 
yellowish green in color to reddish brown, and has six conspicuous 
white dashes or spots down each side. The third segment back of 




Fig. 387. — Larva of the Achemon Sphinx. Original. 

the head is enlarged. At the hind end is a horn, changing to a 
round " eyespot " as the caterpillar nears maturity. Abbott's Sphinx 
{Sphecodina abbottii Swain) reaches a length of 2| inches, is light 




Fig. 388. — The Abbott's Sphinx. Original. 



brown in color with darker streaks lengthwise of the body and 
black lines across each segment. At the hind end is a conspicuous, 
round black spot margined with yellow. 



274 



PESTS OF ORCHARD AND SMALL FRUITS 



Since the larvae are conspicuous and are not numerous, hand picking 
is feasible. Arsenical poisons, such as Paris green or arsenate of 
lead, may be used if desired. 




Fig. 389. — Larva of the Abbott's Sphinx. Original. 

The Plum-tree Sphinx {Sphinx drupiferarum S. and A.) 

Large, green caterpillars are sometimes in evidence on the foliage 
of plum trees, devouring the leaves. They are naked worms, two 

inches or more in length, 
the body marked on each 
side with seven diagonal 
dashes of narrow white 
bordered with purple. 
On the hind end is a 
conspicuous spine. The 
adults are strong-flying 
moths, seen hovering 
over flowers in the eve- 
ning. The pupal stage is 
passed in the soil. There is one generation annually. Hand picking 
is the usual remedy, but arsenate of lead or Paris green may be used 
on the foliage if desired. 

The False Army-worm (Calocampa nubera Lint.) 

In recent seasons, cranberry foliage has been severely injured by a 
large caterpillar, two inches long when full grown, dark green in color, 




Fig. 390.— Adult Plum-tree Sphinx. Slightly 
reduced. Original. 



CONSPICUOUS CATERPILLARS DESTROYING FOLIAGE 275 

somewhat spotted with white, and with a greenish yellow head. The 
depredations take place in early summer. The moths are out in 
August and September. 

Bogs attacked may be reflowed for 24 hours, when the worms are 
found at work, thus killing them or dislodging them from the vines. 
Arsenate of lead or Paris green may be used to advantage if applied 
while the worms are small. 




The Smeared Dagger (Acronyda (Apatela) oblinita S. and A.) 

Conspicuous cater- 
pillars, Ij inches long 
when full grown, feed 
on the foliage of 
strawberries and rasp- 
berries, and occasion- 

FiG. 391. — Larva of the 
Smeared Dagger. Original. 

ally on clover. The body 
is velvety black. There is 
a band of red across the 
back on each segment, red 
tubercles and yellow spots 
along the back, and a 
yellow band along each side. There are two broods annually. 
Control consists in prompt application of arsenate of lead or Paris 
green. 

The Eight-spotted Forester (Alypia octomaculata Fab.) 

The foliage of grapes, and 
often of Virginia creeper, is 
eaten by conspicuous naked 
caterpillars, \\ inches long 
when mature. The' head is 

Fig. 393. -Larva of the Eight-spotted ^^^^^^ ^^^^g^- ^here is an 
Forester. Original. orange band across each seg- 




FiG. 392. — The Smeared Dagger. Original. 




276 



PESTS OF ORCHARD AND SMALL FRUITS 



ment, and on each side of the 
body is a wavy white longi- 
tudinal band, faint on the 
segments toward the head, 
but prominent toward the 
hind end. The adult moth 
is black, marked with eight 
large spots. The readiest 
means of control is to apply 
Fig. 394.— The Eight-spotted Forester. arsenate of lead or Paris green 
Shghtly enlarged. Original. to the foliage. 

The Grape-leaf Skeletonizer (Harrisina americana Guer-Men.) 

Orderly rows of small, yellowish, black-spotted caterpillars feed on 
the surface of grape leaves, devouring the surface tissue, but leaving 
the veins untouched. Later, when more nearly full grown, the larvae 
separate and work singly, eating all of the leaf except the main ribs. 






Fig. 395. — Larva of the Grape-leaf 
Skeletonizer. Original. 

The mature caterpillar is a half 
inch long. 

The parent moth emerges in 
June, and lays eggs on the under 
side of grape leaves. Larvae 

hatched from these eggs complete their growth in a month to six 
weeks, and a second generation of moths come out in July or August, 
followed by a second lot of caterpillars. The insect passes the win- 
ter in the pupal stage in dead leaves or rubbish. 



Fig. 396. —Adult of the Grape-leaf Skele- 
tonizer, enlarged to three times natural 
size. Original. 



SMALL CATERPILLARS EATING THE LEAF SURFACE 277 

When the caterpillars are feeding together, the simplest means of 
control is to remove the leaves on which they are at work. Later, 
when the larvae have scattered, it is necessary to apply arsenate of 
lead or Paris green. If grapes are sprayed early with arsenicals, 
enough of the poison will adhere to check these insects when they begin 
feeding. 



The Apple-leaf Skeletonizer {Canarsia hammondi Riley) 

A small, brown caterpillar, not more than half an inch long when 
full grown, injures apple foliage by eating the surface of the leaves. 





Fig. 397. — Work of the Apple-leaf Skele- 
tonizer. Original. 



Fig. 398. — Larva of the Apple-leai 
Skeletonizer. Enlarged. Original. 

It begins work near the center 
of the leaf, and spins over itself 
a thin web. Frequently sev- 
eral of the worms will be found 
under a single web. The cat- 



erpillar is marked by four black dots just back of the head, two on 
the first segment and two 
on the second. 

The pupal stage is passed 
on the leaf. The adult is 
a grayish moth, expanding 
half an inch. There are two 
or three broods in a season. 

The application of arse- 
nate of lead or Paris green 
. ., c ^^ -n 11 Fig. 399. — Adult of the Apple-Leaf Skele- 

to the loliage will soon check . • t^. , , , - , • r\ ■ 

*= tonizer. Enlarged and natural size. Orig- 

the pest. It is necessary to inal. 




278 



PESTS OF ORCHARD AND SMALL FRUITS 



reach the terminal leaves, for the caterpillars are apt to feed in such 
locations. 



The Palmer-worm {Dichomeris ligulellus Hbn. ( Ypsolophus pometellus 

Harr.)) 

At occasional periods, separated by long intervals, a small striped 
caterpillar becomes numerous on apple and other trees, severely 

injuring the foliage and 
often eating irregular cavi- 
ties in the surface of the 
young fruit. The full- 
grown worm is about a 
half inch long, has three 
narrow dark stripes down 
its back, and usually spins 
Fig. 400. — Adult of the Palmer-worm. En- a few strands of silk OVer 
larged and natural size. Original. .^^^j^^ sometimes thuS 

bending over the edge of a leaf. The adult is a tiny moth. 

The best remedy is a 
prompt application of Paris 
green or arsenate of lead. 




The Apple-leaf Bucculatrix 

(Bucculatrix pomifoliella 
Clem.) 

Greenish yellow caterpil- 
lars, half an inch long when 
full grown, feed first in mines 
within the leaf tissues of 
apples, or related trees, and 
later on the surface, skele- 
tonizing the leaf. The seg- 
ments of the caterpillar's body 
are prominent and rounded. 




Fig. 401. 



Work of the Apple-leaf Buccu- 
latrix. Original. 



SMALL CATERPILLARS INJURING THE LEAVES 279 




Fig. 402. — Cocoon of the Apple-leaf Bucculatrix. Enlarged and natural size. 

Original. 



In the fall the larvse migrate to twigs or branches and make 
small, whitish, ribbed cocoons, often somewhat conspicuous when 
occurring in large numbers. 
The tiny parent moth emerges 
from the cocoon the following 
spring. 

The use of Paris green or arse- 
nate of lead to poison the cater- 
pillars when they begin feeding 
on the surface of the leaf is the 
easiest remedy, although a win- 
ter spraying with lime sulphur 
or 15 per cent kerosene emulsion 

will be likely to kill the overwin- 

^, . . Fig. 403. — Adult of the Apple-leaf 

termg form. The species is Bucculatrix. Enlarged and natural 

seldom a genuine pest. size. Original. 




The Spring Canker-worm {Paleacrita vernata Peck) 
A small, naked measuring worm or inchworm attacks the foliage of 
apple trees in early spring. At first small holes are eaten in the leaves, 



280 



FESTS OF ORCHARD AND SMALL FRUITS 



but later the entire leaf is destroyed, except 
worms are three fourths to one inch long, naked. 




Fig. 404. — The Spring Canker-worm. Original. 

moving, they arch the body so as to bring the 
front. This species may be distin- 
guished from the similar fall canker- 
worm by the fact that the latter has 
an additional pair of rather small pro- 
legs near the hind end. 



the main veins. The 
dark green, and some- 
times rather dis- 
tinctly striped. 
They have a pair 
of prolegs or clasp- 
ers on the hind 
end, a single pair 
a short distance 
forward of these, 
but no other legs 
from that point to 
the three pairs of 
true legs near the 
front end of the 
body. Thus, in 
liind end up near the 




Fig. 405. — Adult female of the Spring Can- 
ker-worm. Enlarged and natural size. 
Original. 




Fig. 406. — Work of Canker- 
worms. Original. 



SPAN WORMS EATING THE LEAVES 



281 



When full grown, the worms enter the ground, and remain there 
until the following spring. The adults come out several weeks before 
the apple is due to blossom. The female is wingless, crawls up the 
trunk, and lays her eggs. The male is winged. The eggs hatch after 
the apple leaves have unfolded. 

Spraying with arsenicals, using rather heavy dosage, will kill the 
worms. Instead of this the trees may be banded six weeks before the 
apples are due to bloom, so as to prevent the females or the worms 
from reaching the upper parts of the tree. Orchards that are regu- 
larly sprayed with 
poisons, such as arse- 
nate of lead or Paris 
green, will not suffer 
from tliis pest. 

The Fall Canker-worm 

{Alsophila pometaria 
Harr.) 

This species is quite 
similar in characteris- 
tics to the spring can- 
ker-worm. The larva 
may readily be recog- 
nized from the fact 
that it has two pairs 
of prolegs near the 
hind end of the body 
just forward of the 
claspers located on the 
extreme hina end, Fig. 407. 
whereas the spring 
canker-worm has only one pair. The injury wrought by the two 
species is identical. Either will strip the foliage from apple trees in 
early spring, when numerous. 




The Fall Canker-worm, 
larged. Original. 



Slightly en- 



282 



PESTS OF ORCHARD AND SMALL FRUITS 




The life round in this species is different from that of the spring 
canker-worm. The full-grown larva enters the soil to transform, but 

the adults emerge in the fall, instead 
of the spring. The female is wingless, 
and at once climbs the trunk and lays 
her eggs. These eggs remain over win- 
ter. They hatch in the spring, with 
the opening of the apple foliage. 

Spraying with arsenical poisons will 
control this species. If it is desired to 
control the pest by banding, it will be 
necessary to apply bands in the fall, 
so as to prevent the females from 
crawling up to the higher parts of the 
tree, and to renew the bands in the spring to prevent the young 
worms from ascending. The females, if stopped in the fall by bands, 
will lay eggs below the ob- 
structions, and thus further 
banding at the hatching sea- 
son in the spring is essential. 

The Currant Spanworm 

(Cymatophora rihearia Fitch) 

This worm is one of the 

loopers or measuring worms. 



Fig. 408. — Eggs of the Fall 
Canker-worm. Enlarged and 
natural size. Original. 



f\^ 




Fig. 410. — Adult of the Currant 
worm. Original. 



Fig. 409. — The Currant Spanworm. 
Slightly enlarged. Original. 



It is a little over an inch long 
when mature, is light yellow- 
ish or cream colored, and dot- 
ted with black. The worms 
appear in early spring from 
eggs laid on the stems the 
previous summer by the par- 
ent moth. When they are 
very abundant, the foliage is 
destroyed by them. 



SPANWORMS EATING THE LEAVES 



283 



Spraying with arsenical poisons is a ready remedy. Usually the 
currants are not ripe when the worms appear, and therefore poison 
sprays may be used safely. 




Fig. 411.— Adult of the Cran- 
berry Spanworm. Original. 



The Cranberry Spanworm {Cleora pampinaria Guen.) 

The leaves of cranberry, asparagus, cotton, strawberry, apple, pear, 
clover, and others are sometimes eaten by a brownish or olive span- 
worm, 1| inches long when mature. 
Its body is streaked and mottled 
with lighter and darker shades. On 
the back, about one third of the way 
to the rear of the head, are two low 
black tubercles, and near the hind 
end are two more. There are two 
pairs of fleshy false legs near the hind 
end, and three pairs of true legs close 
to the front end. The worms have 
a habit of resting motionless, hold- 
ing fast to a stem by the hind legs, the body projecting at an angle. 
The adult is a gray moth marked with many spots and zigzag lines 
of black and brown. There are two generations annually, larvae 

appearing in late June and 
again in August. 

Dusting or spraying with 
arsenate of lead or Paris green 
will poison the worms. 

The Elm Spanworm 
(Ennomos subsignarius Hbn.) 

In June the larvae of this 
moth may be found on the 
foliage of a great variety of 
trees, including apple, pear, or other fruits as well as forest trees. 
Usually they are brown, but sometimes green, look much like a 
twig, and have three low tubercles on the back, one near the hind 




Fig. 412. 



Adult of the Elm Spanworm. 
Original. 



28-t 



PESTS OF ORCHARD AND SMALL FRUITS 




Fig. 413. — Larva of the Lime-tree 
Winter Moth. Original. 



end, another a third of the way toward the head end, and another 
two thirds of the way toward the head. Tliey have no feet along 
the middle part of the body, and move with a looping gait. The adult 
is a white moth, expanding about 1^ inches. Eggs are laid in July, 

in masses on the twigs, and hatch 
the following summer. 

On orchard trees the best meas- 
ure of control is an application of 
arsenate of lead or Paris green. 

The Lime-tree Winter Moth 

(Erannis tiliaria Harr.) 
The larva of this species some- 
times strips the foliage of apple 
trees. It is a spanworm or " measuring worm," l\ inches long when 
full grown, the body yellowish above with several fine black Unes 
down its back, the under 
side hghter. 

The adult moths 
usually emerge in the fall, 
but occasionally not until 
spring. The male is 
winged, but the female is 
spiderlike and wingless. 
The caterpillars are at 
work in the early weeks 
of the growing season. 
Pupation takes place in 
the ground. 

In its appearance and habits this species resembles the canker-worms. 
The remedies recommended for the latter will apply to this pest. 




Fig. 414. 



The Lime-tree Winter Moth. 
Original. 



The Chain Spotted Geometer {Cingilia catenaria Dru.) 

Characteristic, slender measuring worms, 1^ inches long when fuU 
grown, feed on the foliage of various bush fruits. The caterpillar 



SAWFLY LARVAE EATING THE LEAVES 



285 




Fig. 415. — Larva of the Chain Spotted 
Geometer. Original. 



is cylindrical, light yellow, 
marked with two fine, brown 
lines on the back and two on 
the sides, and distinctly marked 
with two black dots on each 
segment. 

Pupation takes place in a 



delicate, lace-hke cocoon among the leaves. The adult moths are 
numerous in late summer. 

The worms are easily 
poisoned by applying arsenate 
of lead or Paris green to the 
fohage. 




Fig. 416. — Adult of the Chain 
Spotted Geometer. Original. 



The Imported Currant Worm 

(Pteronus ribesii Scop.) 
Currants and gooseberries 
are subject to periodical strip- 
ping by this worm. Through- 
out most of its existence the 
larva is greenish in color, 
marked with numerous black 
dots, but just before trans- 




FiG. 417. — The Imported Currant Worm. 
Work and larvae. Original. 



forming it is clear green without any dots. When full grown, its 
length is three fourths of an inch. 



286 



PESTS OF ORCHARD AND SMALL FRUITS 




Fig. 41S. — Cocoons of the Imported 
Currant Worm. Original. 

the spraying is done early, arsenate 

fruit is coloring, use 

hellebore. 

The Native Cur- 
rant Worm (Di- 
phadnus appendicu- 
latus Hartig) causes 
similar defoliation. 
The larva is half an 
inch long, and light 



The pupal stage is passed in 
little cells in the soil. There 
are two generations, one lot of 
worms appearing in early sum- 
mer and the second brood five 
or six weeks later. Hibernation 
takes place in the pupal stage. 
The adult is a sawfly. 

Until currants are ripe the 

best remedy is an application 

of Paris green and lime. If 

of lead may be used. When the 





Fig. 420.— Adult of the Native Cur- 
rant Worm. Enlarged and natural 
size. Original. 



Fig. 419. — Adult of the Imported Cur- 
rant Worm. Enlarged and natural 
size. Original. 

green, without black spots. There 
are two generations. The adult 
is a sawfly. The measures of con- 
trol are the same as for the im- 
ported currant worm. Paris green 
may be used safely until the fruit 
is half grown. 



SAWFLY LARV.^ EATING THE LEAVES 



287 



The Raspberry Sawfly {Monophadnoides rubi Harr.) 

. Greenish, spiny worms eat the fohage of raspberry and blackberry, 
stripping the bushes and leaving only the main leaf veins. The full- 
grown larva is three fourths of an inch long and covered with short 





Fig. 421. — Larva of the Raspberry 
Sawfly. Original. 



Fig. 422. — The Raspberry Sawfly. 
Enlarged and natural size. Orig- 
inal. 



spines, which are dark on its back but hght on its sides. When ma- 
ture, the worms -enter the ground, and remain there until the follow- 
ing spring, when the transformation to the adult sawfly takes place. 

Paris green or ar- 
senate of lead may be 
used to poison the 
worms until the fruit 
is set. After that use 
hellebore. 




The Grape Sawfly 

(Selandria vitis Say) 

Greenish or yellowish 

slugs, their bodies 

dotted with black, feed 

^, - Fig. 423. — The Grape Sawfly. Enlarged and 

m groups on the leaves ^^^^^^1 ^.^^ O^i^i^^l 

of grapes, usually on 

the under side of the leaf. The adult is a sawfly. There are two 

broods annually. 



288 FESTS OF OB CHARD AND SMALL FRUITS 

An application of arsenate of lead or Paris green is the best control 
measure until the fruit is well colored. 

The Strawberry Sawfly {Empria (Harpiphorus) maculata Nort.) 

About the time that strawberries begin blooming, the leaves are 
eaten by sluglike worms, half an inch long, yellowish in color, with a 
pale stripe down the back. When not feeding, the slugs often rest on 



Fig. 424. — The Strawberry Sawfly. Enlarged and natural size. Original. 

the under surface of the leaf, coiled in a sort of spiral. The adults are 
small, four-winged insects. Winter is passed in the ground. There 
is one brood each year. 

The best means of control is an early application of arsenical poisons. 
If ripe strawberries are already on the vines when injury is noted, 
hellebore may be used. 

The Pear-slug (Caliroa (Eriocampoides) cerasi Linn.) 

Small, dark green, slimy slugs eat the surface of the leaves of pear, 
cherry, and plum, gnawing off the epidermis and leaving the veins and 
lower surface. The tissues where they have been at work turn brown, 



SLUGS EATING THE LEAF SURFACE 



289 




Fig. 425. — Work and larva of the Pear-slug. Original. 

and if the slugs are numerous, the entire fohage of the tree may look 
scorched and drop off. When nearl}^ full grown, the larvse lose their 
slimy coating with the last 
molt, and are then a clear yel- 
low in color. 

There are two or three gen- 
erations in a season. The 
slugs are apt to be more nu- 
merous in the middle or latter 
part of summer. The adult is 
a sawfly. Eggs are laid within 
the tissues of the leaf. 

Ordinarily the simplest means 
of control is to apply Paris green or arsenate of lead to the foliage 
The slugs are easily killed. 




Fig. 426. — Adult of the Pear-slug. En- 
larged and natural size. Original. 



The Peach and Plum Slug (Caliroa amygdalina Rohwer) 

The work of this insect is similar to that of the common pear-slug. 
The species is found in the GuK states. There are half a dozen or more 
generations each season, and injury is most severe toward the end of 
summer. Spraying with an arsenical poison is the readiest remedy. 



290 



PESTS OF ORCHARD AND SMALL FRUITS 



The Gypsy Moth (Porthetria dispar Linn.) 

This notorious European pest has now become established in the 
New England states, where it is doing immense damage, defoli- 
ating forest, shade, and fruit 
trees. Evergreens are freely at- 
tacked after the caterpillars are 
half grown. 

The full-grown gypsy caterpil- 
lar is 2| inches long, hairy, and 
dark or black in general color. 
Beginning just behind the head 
there is a double row of five dark 
blue spots down the back, fol- 
lowed by a double row of six 
dark red spots, the last pair of 
the lati-er just above the hind 




Fig. 



427. — Larva of the Gypsy 
Moth. Original. 



end. After they are three 
fourths grown the caterpillars 
tend to feed only at night, com- 
ing down the trunks of the trees 
and hiding or resting in masses 
during daylight. 

Pupation takes place in a 
flimsy cocoon, on the trunk or 




Fig. 428. — Egg-mass of the Gypsy Moth 
on bark. Original. 



LARGE, HAIRY CATERPILLARS EATING THE LEAVES 291 




near by, and the adult moths are out in July and August. The 

female is light grayish, heavy bodied, and has a witig expanse of two 

inches, but cannot 

fly. The male is 

much smaller, 

brown in general 

color, and flies 

readily. Eggs are 

laid in masses, and 

are covered with 

yellowish hairs 

from the body of 

the female. Egg 

masses occur on 

the trunks of trees, 

the under side of 

branches, or on any 

permanent object near at hand. The egg stage lasts until the follow- 
ing May, when the young caterpillars hatch and at once begin feeding. 
Large sums have been spent by federal, state, and town author- 
ities to prevent the spread of 
this pest, reduce its ravages, 
and introduce its natural 
enemies. 

The egg masses may be 
painted with creosote at any 
time between September and 
the following April. This will 
penetrate and kill the eggs. 

The larvae may be poisoned 
by spraying with arsenate of 



Fig. 429. — Newly hatched larvae of the Gypsy Moth 
on egg-mass ; and empty pupal shell. Original. 




Fig. 430. 



-The Gypsy Moth. 
Original. 



Adult male. 



lead, using 5 to 8 pounds to 50 gallons of water, and applying early 
while the larvae are still small. Tall trees may be banded with 
burlap, so as to provide a place where the caterpillars will hide by 
day and where they may be killed by mechanical means. 



292 



PESTS OF ORCHARD AND SMALL FRUITS 




Fig. 431. — The Gypsy Moth. Adult female. Original. 

Evergreens may be protected by banding the trunks with tanglefoot 

to prevent larvae from crawling 
up into them after getting a start 
on deciduous growth near by. The 
same plan is useful to prevent in- 
jury to fruit or shade trees that 
have been properly cared for but 
are threatened by larvae coming 
from egg masses in stone walls or 
on neglected growth close at hand. 
In woods of mixed growth it is 
advisable to remove all hard wood, 
leaving only a stand of pure ever- 
green, since the larvae cannot live 
on evergreens until half grown. 

The Browntail Moth 

(Euproctis chrysorrhoea Linn.) 

Throughout winter the small, 

compact nests of this insect are 

conspicuous on the tips of twigs 

of many species of orchard and 

Fig. 432. -Winter nest of the Brown- ^^^^^ ^^^es and shrubs. A typical 
tail Moth. Original. nest usually includes two or three 




HAIRY CATERPILLARS EATING THE LEAVES 



293 



leaves woven up tightly in silk, and attached to the twig by a tough 
strand of silk, which often follows the petiole of a leaf. Evergreens 
are not attacked by this species. 

Within the nest are several hundred very small caterpillars. Before 
foliage starts in the spring they come out and wander over the twigs 





Fig. 433. — Larva of the Browntail 
Moth. Original. 



Fig. 434. — Adult Browntail Moths. 
Male above, female below. Original. 



near the nest. When growth starts, they begin at once feeding on the 
foliage, often eating the leaves as fast as they unfold. 

The mature caterpillar is an inch and a quarter long, brownish in 
general color, marked with a row of oblique white dashes down each 
side of its back, and with two orange spots near the hind end, one be- 
hind the other. 

Pupation takes place among the leaves. The adults emerge in 
July. Their wings are pure white, and the body of the female bears a 
tuft of brown hairs at the end of the abdomen. The moths fly at night 
and often are seen in large numbers around lights. Eggs are laid on 
the leaves and hatch early in August. The young caterpillars skeleton- 



294 



PESTS OF ORCHARD AND SMALL FRUITS 



ize leaves near by, giving the foliage a brown appearance. After a 
few weeks they make their winter nest and retire to it, remaining 
therein until the following spring. 

In addition to the damage done by the caterpillars there is an annoy- 
ing and sometimes serious poisoning of human beings by barbed hairs 
borne by the caterpillars. These hairs often are carried by the wind. 




Fig. 435. — Egg-masses and adult female of the Browntail Moth. 
Original. 



The ordinary means of control is the removal and burning of the 
winter nests. On fruit trees it is a better plan to spray with arsenical 
poisons the first week in August, at the time when the caterpillars are 
just hatching from the egg. They are not resistant to poison when 
small, and a moderate dose will kill them. Spraying in the spring is 
not satisfactory. 



TUFTED CATERPILLARS EATING THE LEAVES 295 



The Tussock Moths 

Three species of caterpillars of striking appearance, the larval stages 
of tussock moths, infest the foliage of orchard and forest trees. Of 




Fig. 



436. — Larva of the Rusty Tussock Moth. 
Original. 




Fig. 437. — Egg-mass of the 
White Marked Tussock 
Moth on cocoon. OriginaL 



these the White Marked Tussock Moth 
{Hemerocampa leucostigmaS. and A.) is in 
many sections the most common, while 
in others the Rusty Tussock Moth {Hem- 
erocampa antiqua Linn.) or the Definite Marked Tussock Moth 
{Hemerocampa definita Pack.) may be the one most in evidence. 





Fig. 438. — The White Marked Tussock 
Moth. Adult male. Original. 



Fig. 439. — The Rusty Tussock 
Moth. Adult female. Original. 



The caterpillar of the white marked tussock moth is hairy, 1| to U 
inches long, yellow, striped with black. Its head is bright red. There 
are four tufts of white hair on its back, a pencil of black hair projecting 



296 



PESTS OF ORCHARD AND SMALL FRUITS 




forward on either side of its head, and a similar single pencil projecting 
back from the hind end. The caterpillars of the other two species are 

somewhat similar 
in appearance, 
though not so 
brightly colored. 

The eggs of the 
first species are 
laid in a mass of 
frothy, white sub- 
stance, on top of 
the cocoon of the 
female, on the bark 
of trunk or limb. 
Fig. 440.— Egg-mass of the Rusty Tussock Moth. The eggs of the 

Onguial. others are not cov- 

ered with froth. The adult females are wingless, looking somewhat 
like gray spiders. They emerge and lay 
their eggs in late summer. 

The simplest means of control is to spray 
with arsenical poison, either Paris green 
or arsenate of lead. Egg masses may be 
destroyed when found by painting them 
with creosote. Sometimes trees are banded 
to prevent the insect from invading them 
from near-by uncared-for premises. 

The Fall Web worm ( Hijphantria cunea Dru.) 
Colonies of hairy caterpillars feed in com- 
pany on the fohage of orchard or forest 
trees, building a web around the terminal 
leaves. As the green leaves within their 
nest are devoured, fresh foliage is drawn in 
and the nest enlarged, until it becomes 
decidedly conspicuous. Several different * ttrnT'o'Hg™'"' 




ACTIVE WORMS FEEDING WITHIN WEBBED LEAVES 297 



webs may be made in succession by the same colony. The caterpil- 
lars have a dark body, covered with long, whitish hairs. The work 
is entirely distinct from that of the tent caterpillar, which builds its 
nest in the forks of branches and does not include any foliage in it. 

When full grown, the cater- 
pillars disperse, hide away, and 
spin up cocoons, from which 
the adult moths emerge the fol- 
lowing summer. In the South 
there are two generations. 

Trees may be sprayed with 
arsenate of lead or Paris green, 
and the caterpillars thus killed 
when they extend their webs 
over new and poisoned foliage. 
Or the nests may be cut off 
when first observed, and de- 
stroyed, along with the cater- 
pillars in them. 

The Leaf Grumpier 

{Mineola indiginella Zell.) 

In winter dark little twisted 
cases of silk mixed with bits 
of leaves may be seen attached to twigs of apple trees. From these 
brownish red caterpillars, one fourth of an inch long, come out ir 




Fig. 442. 



Work of the Leaf Grumpier. 
Original. 




,5^^ 



*.'V. >''*^«;>5<fli?; 



Fig. 443. — Larva of the Leaf Grum- 
pier. Enlarged and natural size. 
Original. 



Fig. 444. — Larval cases of the Leaf 
Grumpier on twig. Original. 



298 



PESTS OF ORCHARD AND SMALL FRUITS 




Fig. 445. — Adult of the Leaf Grumpier. Enlarged 
and natural size. Original. 



early spring and attack the tender foliage, drawing the leaves of a 
cluster more or less together with silk. Before long the dried bunches 
of dead leaves are conspicuous. 

The adult is a moth, expanding about three fourths of an inch, its 
wings gray, with darker and lighter markings. Eggs are laid in mid- 

summer, and the young 

larvae feed for a time, 
later moving to the 
twigs where they con- 
struct their winter 
shelter. 

Early, prompt spray- 
ing in the spring with 
arsenate of lead or 
Paris green will kill the 
caterpillars, but the 
treatment must be 
given before the work is well advanced. If orchard trees are regu- 
larly sprayed, they will seldom suffer damage from this pest, be- 
cause the poison adhering to the fohage will kill the young larvae when 
they begin work in midsum- 
mer, before they retire to 
their winter homes. 



The Bud-moth {Spilonota 
(Tmetocera) ocellana Schiff.) 

The opening buds of 
apple, pear, and sometimes 
cherry, peach, or plum are 
attacked by small whitish 
caterpillars, one fourth of 
an inch long or less, with 
dark brown heads. As the 
young leaves expand, the 
caterpillars bind them to- 




FiG. 446. — Work of the Bud-moth. Original. 



ACTIVE WORMS FEEDING WITHIN WEBBED LEAVES 299 




gether with silk, feeding inside, so that small, dead, brown clusters are 

to be seen here and there. When full grown, the larvae are brownish, 

and three quarters of an inch long. 
The caterpillars change to pupae 

within the webbed leaves, and later 

the small gray and brown moths 

appear and lay eggs on the under- 
side of leaves. The tiny worms 

which hatch from these feed for a 

few weeks and then migrate to 

twigs and make silk cases in which 

they pass the winter. 

Spraying with arsenicals is effective if done very early when the 

buds are just expanding, 
and repeated as soon as 
the leaves are fairly out- 
Regular seasonal spray- 
ings will control this species 
through poisoning the 
larvae when they first hatch 
from the eggs in midsum- 
mer. For this reason they 
are not apt to be seen in 



Fig. 447. — Larva of the Bud-moth. 
Enlarged and natural size. Original. 




Fig. 448.— The Bud-moth. Enlarged and 
natural size. Original. 



well-cared-for orchards. 



The Blackhead Cranberry Worm {Rhopobota {Eudemis) vacciniana 

Pack.) 

Small, velvety green caterpillars, with shining black heads, draw to- 
gether the tip leaves on uprights and feed within. The pest is com- 
monly known as the ''fire worm " because of the scorched appearance 
of a badly infested bog. There are two broods annually. The species 
overwinters as an egg attached to the under side of the leaf. 

Where sufficient water is available, it is an effective plan to reflow 
for two or three days when the worms are coming down out of the 
uprights and pupating. If this is not feasible, the only satisfactory 



300 



PESTS OF ORCHARD AND S 31 ALL FRUITS 



remedy is to apply arsenicals early to poison the worms. The second 
brood, if serious, can be controlled only by applying arsenical poisons. 




Fig. 449. — The Blackhead Cran- Fig. 450.— Adult of the Blackhead Cran- 
berry Worm. Enlarged and natural berry Worm. Enlarged and natural 
size. Original. size. Original. 

The Yellowhead Cranberry Worm {Peronea (Acleris) minuta Rob.) 

The larva of this species is quite similar in appearance to the pre- 
ceding, but has a yellow head. It works in the same manner, webbing 
up the tips and destroying or killing the foliage within. 

The winter is passed as an adult moth. The most practical means of 
control is to hold the water in the spring so as to force these adults to 




Fig. 451. — Adult of the Yellowhead Cranberry Worm. 
Enlarged and natural size. Original. 



lay their eggs elsewhere. On infested bogs reflowing for 48 hours will 
kill the worms. There are three broods annually. Spraying or dust- 
ing with arsenical poisons is effective, if done early. 



SMALL WORMS FEEDING WITHIN WEBBED LEAVES 301 

The Grape Plume Moth {Oxyptilus periscelidadylus Fitch) 

Small, green or yellow larvae, half an inch long when mature, web 
together the younger leaves of grapes and feed on the foliage within. 




Fig. 452. — Work and empty pupal skin of the Grape 
Plume Moth. Original. 

They are seldom numerous enough to be a pest. The adult is a delicate, 
buff-colored moth, with narrow, feathery wings. The usual and 




Fig. 453. — Larva of the Grape 
Plume Moth. Slightly enlarged. 
Original. 




Fig. 454. — The Grape Plume 
Moth. Enlarged to twice nat- 
ural size. Original. 



easiest means of control is to pick off and destroy the webbed-up 
clusters of leaves. 



302 



FESTS OF ORCHARD AND SMALL FRUITS 



The Oblique Banded Leaf-roller {Archips rosaceana Harr.) 

Active, light green or rosy caterpillars, three quarters of an inch 
long, with a darker stripe down the back, roll up the leaves, fasten 
them with silk, and feed within. They infest apple and other fruit 

trees, raspberries, roses, and straw- 
berries, and often are destructive to 
flowering plants in greenhouses. Pu- 

pation takes place within the folded 

J^^ ^^^^^^ leaves. The adult is a smooth, 

^^^^^ ^^^^^^H brownish moth. See page 188. 

^H^K ^IS9v Control is often difficult, but 

^^^^Bk ^^^«F prompt, thorough use of Paris green 

^^^HL ^BB or arsenate of lead will check the pest. 



The Fruit-tree Leaf-roller 

{Archips (Cacoecia) argyrospila Walk.) 



Fig. 455. — Work of the Fruit- 
tree Leaf-roller. Original. 



The young leaves and fruit of or- 
chard trees and bush fruits are at- 
tacked by yellowish larvae, which spin 
threads wherever thej^ go, drawing leaves somewhat together. The 
full-grown worm is about an inch long, has 
a black head, and has a few short hairs 
scattered over its body. It is active when 
disturbed. 

The pest appears very early in spring, 
when the buds are first unfolding. It hatches 
from eggs laid in flat masses on the bark. 
There is one generation annually. 

Early spraying with arsenate of lead or 

Paris green at the time that the buds are 

, . 1-111 1 Fig. 456. — Adults of the 

openmg, and agam when the blossoms have pruit-tree Leaf-roller, 

fallen, is the means of control. Original. 




ACTIVE WORMS FEEDING WITHIN FOLDED LEAVES 803 



The Grape Leaf-folder (Desmm/wneraZis Hbn.) 

Leaves of grape are folded with their upper surfaces together by a 
small, active, greenish worm, which feeds inside. The worm is an 
inch long when full grown, 
has a brown head, and a 
brown spot on each side of 
the first two segments. 
Transformation takes place 
within the folded leaf. 

The adult is a small moth 
with black wings spotted 
with white. There are two 
broods in the North, three 
the South. Winter is 
as a pupa in the 
folded leaf on the ground. 
To control, destroy or 
I; plow under the fallen leaves. 
Or spray very early in sum- 
mer with Paris green or arsenate of lead so as to poison the first lot of 

caterpillars when they have just 
hatched and before they fold the 
leaves. 



m 




Fig. 457. - 
folder. 



Work and pupa of the Grape Leaf- 
Slightly enlarged. Original. 




The Strawberry Leaf-roller 

(Ancylis comptana Frohl.) 

A tiny worm, one third of an 
inch long, brown or often green in 
color, folds the leaves of straw- 
berry, or sometimes blackberry or 
raspberry, and feeds within. As the larva eats off the inclosed leaf 
surface the leaf turns brown, and when the pests are numerous, whole 
beds of plants will look as if scorched. 

Two broods occur in the North and three in the South. The later 



iFiG. 458. — Adult of the Grape Leaf- 
folder. Original. 



304 



FESTS OF ORCHARD AND SMALL FRUITS 



broods are found on blackberry or raspberry, rather than strawberry. 

On blackberry leaves the work is similar to that on strawberry leaves, 

but on raspberry 
the larvae tend 
rather to web up a 
terminal cluster of 
leaves. Hiberna- 
tion takes place as 
larva or pupa 
witliin a folded 
leaf. The adult 
is a tiny brownish 



Fig. 459. — Work of the Strawberry Leaf -roller. 
Original. 






Fig. 461. — Adult of the Strawberry Leaf-roller. 
Enlarged and natural size. Original. 



Fig. 460. — Larva of 
the Strawberry 
Leaf-roller. En- 
larged and natural 
size. Original. 



moth, expanding a 
little less than half 
an inch. 

Since the larvae 
feed for a short 
time exposed on 
the upper surface 
of the leaf before 



drawing it together, an early application of Paris green or arsenate 
of lead will check the pest. This application must be made early, 
and usually must be repeated, because new leaves are being put out 



ACTIVE WORMS FEEDING WITHIN FOLDED LEAVES 305 

by the plant. In the South it has been found feasible to cut over 
strawberry beds in midsummer and burn them. It is said that the 
plants are not permanently injured by this treatment. 

The Apple Leaf-sewer {Ancylis nubeculana Clem.) 




Fig. 462. — Work of the Apple Leaf -sewer. Original. 




The leaves of apple or other fruit trees are folded along the midrib, 
so that their upper surfaces are brought together, and a small, active, 

greenish caterpil- 
lar, not more than 
a half inch long, 
feeds within. The 
adult is a brown 
and white moth. 
Winter is passed 



Fig. 463. — Larva of the Apple Leaf- 
sewer. Enlarged and natural size. 
Original. 

within the folded leaves on the 
ground. 

If the pest is numerous, rake 
up and burn the leaves in win- 
ter. Early applications of arse- 
nate of lead or Paris green, as 




Fig. 464.— Adult of the Apple Leaf- 
sewer. Enlarged to twice natural 
size. Original. 



306 



PESTS OF ORCHARD AND SMALL FRUITS 



called for in regular orchard spraying, will poison the larvae before 
they fold the leaf. 

The Lesser Apple Leaf-folder (Peronea minuta Rob.) 

A greenish yellow, naked worm, a half inch long, with a yellow head, 
folds together the tender terminal leaves on apple trees, especially in 

nurseries. When attacking larger 
leaves, it often bends over and 
fastens only a small part of the leaf 
near the margin. There are three 
broods annually, the larvae being 
at work first soon after the leaves 
are well out, again in June, and 
again in August. See page 300. 

To control, apply arsenate of lead 
in the spring as soon as the leaves 
are expanded, and repeat for the 
later broods. 



The Cigar Case-bearer 

(Coleophora fletcherella Fern.) 
Areas in the leaves of apple, 
pear, or quince are mined and 
turned down by a very small cater- 




FiG. 465. — Adult of the Cigar Case- 
bearer. Enlarged and natural size. 
Original. 



pillar that carries with him a little 
cylindrical case made of a tiny sec- 
tion of a leaf, the hind part of liis 
body protected by this case. The 
caterpillar completes its growth in 
June, migrates to a branch, to which 
it attaches its case, and transforms. 
The adult moths fly in July and 
lay eggs on the leaves. The young 
caterpillar first mines in the leaf tis- 
sue, and later constructs a very small, 




Fig. 466. — Larval cases of the 
Cigar Case-bearer. Original. 



CASE-BEARERS FEEDING ON THE LEAVES 



307 



short case, which it carries to a twig and in which it spends the 
winter. 

The remedy is an appHcation of arsenate of lead or Paris green as 
soon as the caterpillars are seen feeding. 




Fig. 467. — Larval cases of the Pistol Case-bearer. Enlarged. Original. 

The Pistol Case-bearer (Coleophora malivorella Riley) has a similar 
life history and does about the same injury. It is distinguished from 
the above by the shape of the larval case, which in this species is 
slender, somewhat tapering, and distinctly 
curved. 

The Bag-worm 

{Thyridopteryx ephemerceformis Steph.) 

This curious larva makes a bag out of 
silk and pieces of leaves as a protection 
to its body. The female is wingless and 

never leaves 

the bag. The 

male is a small, 

clear-winged 

moth. Eggs 

are deposited 

by the female 

within the bag, and remain there until the 
Fig. 469. — Adult male of » „ . 
the Bag-worm. Slightly followmg sprmg. 
enlarged. Original, Removal of the bags in w^inter will put a 





Fig. 468. — Larval case of the 
Bag-worm. Original. 



308 



FESTS OF ORCHARD AND SMALL FRUITS 



stop to the insect. Or the fohage may be sprayed with arsenate of 
lead as soon as the leaves are out. 

The Pear-leaf Blister-mite {Eriophyes pyri Pgst.) 

The leaves of apple and pear often are infested with a species of mite 
that burrows into the tissues of the leaf, causing a characteristic dis- 
coloration and swelling. Spots show in the upper leaf surface, at 



K 






%^> 




Fig. 470. — Work of the Pear-leaf Blister-mite. Original. 

first reddish, but later turning brown. At each spot the leaf is some- 
what thickened and its surface is slightly raised. Sometimes the fruit 
also is attacked and distorted. 

The mites themselves are very small. They hibernate under bud 
scales, migrating to the leaves as soon as the latter unfold, entering 
the tissue from the under side and feeding within. From time to time 
individuals come out and move to new places, starting additional 
colonies and causing a continual increase in the number of spots. In 
late summer they move back again to the twigs, hiding away for 
winter. 



BLISTER-MITES AND LEAF-MINERS 



309 




Fig. 471. — Apples deformed by the Pear-leaf Blister-mite. Original. 

Treatment consists in spraying in winter with lime-sulphur solution, 
so as to kill the hibernating mites. In summer they cannot be reached 
by any spray material because of their feeding habits. 



The Apple Leaf Trumpet Miner 
(Tischeria malifoliella Clem.) 

Characteristic, trumpet-shaped 
mines in the upper surface of 
apple leaves indicate the presence 
of this insect. Usually the mines 
are not more than a half inch 
long, beginning with a quite nar- 
row brown or dead area and en- 
larging rapidly to their maximum 
width. 

There are from two to four 
generations annually. The winter 
is passed by the full-grown larva 
in its mine in fallen leaves. The 




Fig. 472. — Work of the Apple Leaf 
Trumpet Miner. Original. 



tiny adult moths emerge in the spring with the expanding of apple 
foliage. 



310 



PESTS OF ORCHARD AND SMALL FRUITS 



Late fall or early spring plowing to bury fallen leaves is the simplest 
means of control. 




Fig. 473. — Larva of the Apple Leaf 
Trumpet Miner. Enlarged and nat- 
ural size. Original. 




Fig. 474. — Adult of the Apple Leaf 
Trumpet Miner. Enlarged and 
natural size. Original. 



The Blackberry Leaf-miner (Metallus ruhi Forbes) 
The leaves of blackberry sometimes show numerous blotch mines, 
caused by a small larva working within the leaf tissue. Occasionally 
the foliage is severely injured. There are two to four broods in a 
summer, the later ones doing the most damage. The adult is a small 
sawfiy. 

No direct means of control are known except to remove infested 
leaves early in the season. 

The Resplendent Shield-bearer (Coptodisca splendoriferella Clem.) 





Fig. 475. — Cocoons of the Resplen- 
dent Shield-bearer on a piece of 
bark. Original. 



Fig. 476. — The Resplendent Shield- 
bearer. Apple leaf showing mines 
and sections removed. 



Occasionally apple, plum, or quince show the characteristic work 
of this insect. Round, transparent mines are made in the leaves, and 



SMALL, SUCKING BUGS INJURING THE LEAVES 311 



after a time the larva feeding within cuts out the infested area bodily 
and carries it to a twig or branch, where it uses it as a shelter until the 
following spring. There is one brood annually. 

A winter spraying with lime-sulphur solution or other strong con- 
tact insecticide will kill the overwintering form. 

The Four-lined Leaf -bug (Pcecilocapsus lineatus Fab.) 
A sucking bug, about half an inch long, with four short black stripes 
on its back, sometimes injures the leaves of currants, gooseberries, or 
other plants by its feeding punc- 
tures. Spots where the bug has 
been feeding turn brown, and 
sink a little below the level of 
the leaf. In time the entire 
foliage, or that toward the tips 
of the twigs, may be killed. 

In early spring, when first 
hatched, the bugs are very 
small, bright red, and have no 
wings. They feed on only the 
tenderest terminal foliage. They become full grown in June, and 
the female lays eggs in slits cut in the stems of the food plants. In 
the North there is one generation, hibernation taking place in the 
egg stage; in the Southern states there may be a second brood. 

The young nymphs may be killed with a contact insecticide, such 
as 10 per cent kerosene emulsion. The adults are best destroyed by 
brushing them from the plants into pans containing a film of kerosene. 
It is difficult or impossible to control the adults by spraying. 

The Grape Leaf-hopper ( Typhlocyba comes Say) 

Tiny, active insects suck the juices from grape leaves, making 
numerous very small white spots. If attack is severe, the leaves 
shrivel, turn brown, and die. 

The adult insect is one tenth of an inch long, light yellowish in 
color, with green markings on its wings. It has strong legs, jumps 




Fig. 477. — The Four-lined Leaf -bug. 
Enlarged and natural size. Original. 



312 



PESTS OF ORCHARD AND SMALL FRUITS 



quickly, and flies readily. Attack by it is most noticeable in Sep- 
tember. The nymphs look like the adults, except that they are smaller 




Fig. 478. — Work of the Grape Leaf-hopper. Original. 



and have no wings. Both adults and nymphs feed on the under sur- 
face of the leaves. 

The adults leave the grape in October and migrate to neighboring 
vegetation. They overwinter in dead, fallen leaves, clumps of grass, or 
any similar protection. In spring they feed first on weeds, then 

migrate back to the grapes 
and feed on the young shoots 
and leaves. Eggs are laid in 
the tissue of the grape leaves 
in June and July. Nymphs 
emerge shortly, and are numer- 
ous in July and August. The 
nymphs do not hop or fly, 
merely running around over 
the leaves. There is one gen- 
eration each year. 
Cleaning up rubbish in the vineyard is only of nominal value, since 
the adults migrate in October to neighboring hiding places. The best 




Fig. 479. — The Grape Leaf-hopper. En- 
larged and natural size. Original. 



SMALL, ACTIVE INSECTS INJURING THE FOLIAGE 313 



means of control consists in spraying thoroughly with tobacco extract 
as soon as nymphs appear. The spray must be directed to the under 
side of the leaves and must be applied before the insect has reached the 
winged stage, in order to be 
effective. 



The Apple Leaf-hopper 

{Emyoasca rnali Le B.) 
A very small whitish insect, 
winged and active in its ma- 
ture stage, swarms on the 
leaves of apple trees and some- 
times on other foliage, suck- 
ing the juice of the leaf. The 
feeding punctures cause tiny 
white spots, which in time be- 




FlG. 



480. — Work of the Apple Leaf- 
hopper. Original. 



come numerous enough to give the foliage a distinctly bleached ap- 
pearance. On young trees, and especially on nursery stock, the at- 
tack usually results in a curling of the 
tender leaves, somewhat resembling 
the work of plant lice. The insect 
winters partly as adults in rubbish, 
partly as eggs in the bark of the 
trees. There are several generations 
in the course of the summer. 

In orchard trees spraying with a 
contact insecticide, such as tobacco 
extract, will kill many of the leaf- 
hoppers if the material is applied 
early in the season, before the winged stage appears. On nursery 
stock a desirable preventive measure is dipping in soap solution. 




Fig. 481. — The Apple Leaf -hopper, 
Enlarged and natural size. Orig- 
inal. 



The Pear Psylla (Psylla pyricola Foerst.) 

The pear psylla is a minute, sucking insect, wingless in its immature 
stages, but active and winged as an adult. It sucks the juices of the 



314 PESTS OF ORCHARD AND SMALL FRUITS 

buds and newly forming leaves. When the pests are numerous, the 
leaves are killed, and often are blackened through the growth of a fungus 
on the sticky honeydew secreted by the insect. 




Fig. 482. — Work of the Pear Psylla. Original. 

The adult is very small, dark in color, its body showing characteristic 
markings. It has four membranous wings. Seen through a hand lens 

it looks like a tiny cicada, or " lo- 
cust." 

The adults hide away for the 
winter in crevices of the bark, and 
emerge and lay eggs at the time 
that the buds are swelling. The 
young are numerous when the 
blossoms are falling. There are 
Fig. 483. -Adult Pear Psylla. En- four or five broods in a season, 
larged and natural size. Original. The pest may be controlled by 




PLANT-LICE INJURING LEAVES AND SHOOTS 315 

spraying with a contact insecticide, such as tobacco extract, to kill 
the hibernating adults. To do this the bark should be scraped, and 
the spray applied very early in the spring. A second method consists 
in spraying with winter-strength lime sulphur to kill the eggs, ap- 
plying the material when the buds are swelling. Finally, a contact 
insecticide may be used to kill the nymphs, applying the spray when 
the blossoms are falhng. Any one of these treatments, thoroughly 
applied, is effective. 



Plant Lice on Apple Foliage 

Three species of small, soft-bodied, sucking lice are commonly found 
infesting the fohage of apples : the Apple Aphis (Aphis pomi DeG.) ; 
the Rosy Apple Aphis 
(Aphis sorbi Kahl.) ; and 
the European Grain Aphis 
(Siphocoryne avence Fab.). 
In addition to these the 
Clover Aphis (Aphis 
bakeri Co wen) is some- 
times found on apple late 
in the fall and in the early 
spring. 

Infestation may first be 
observed on the young 
shoots which are found 
completely covered with 
very small, green or pink- 
ish Hce. About this time, 
also, it may be noticed 
that many of the lice are 
clustering on the under 
sides of leaves near the 
ends of shoots, causing 

them to curl. p^^ 484. — Work of the Apple Aphis on ter- 

Again the first evidence minal shoot. Original. 






316 



PESTS OF ORCHARD AND SMALL FRUITS 




Fig. 4So. — Adults of the Apple Aphis on twig, 
larged and natural size. Original. 



En- 



of injury may be observed on the expanding buds, on which clusters 
of the hce are found, their work resulting in deforming the young 

leaves or the blos- 
soms, or in consid- 
erable injury to the 
young fruit. 

The life histories 
of these various 
species are not the 
same, in spite of 
the similarity in 
their superficial ap- 
pearance and their 
initial work. 

The Apple Aphis 
{Aphis pomi) 
passes the entire season on the apple. In the winter it is in the egg 
stage, large numbers of the small, black shining eggs often being 
found on terminal 
twigs. The fii'st 
generations in 
summer are wing- 
less, but in later 
generations 
winged individuals 
develop. This 
species is charac- 
teristically bright 
green in color, 
with black, rather 
slender honey 
tubes. It is one 
tweKth of an inch 
long. Usually the lice observed on tender shoots and beneath curled 
terminal leaves belong to this species or to the following. 




Fig. 



486. — Eggs of the Apple Aphis on twig, 
and natural size. Original. 



Enlarged 



PLANT-LICE INJURING THE FOLIAGE 



317 




The Rosy Apple Aphis (Aphis sorbi) hatches from eggs that have 
remained on the apple tliroughout winter, but with the third generation 
migrates to other food 
plants. This is a slightly 
larger species. The wing- 
less female is one tenth of 
an inch long, bluish in 
color, and has yellow honey 
tubes tipped with black. 
The winged female has a 
black thorax and a red ab- 
domen. 

The European Grain 
Aphis (Siphocoryne avence) 
is found in summer on 
small grains, but for the 
most part migrates in the 
fall to apple, pear, or re- 
lated trees, where its win- 
ter eggs are laid. It develops in the spring like the preceding 

species, leaving the fruit 
trees with the coming of the 
third generation. On apple 
trees it is commonly first 
observed clustered on the ex- 
panding buds. 

The Clover Aphis (Aphis 
bokeri) rears its summer gen- 
erations on clover or alfalfa. 
These Hce are light yehow or 
pink. Usually they leave 
the clover in the fall, passing 
through a winter egg stage 

Fig. 488. -Work of Aphis on young fruit. «^^ ^PP^^ «^ P^^^- ^he first 
Original. generation from these eggs 



Fig. 487. — Adults of the Apple Aphis clus- 
tered along veins of leaf. Enlarged. Orig- 
inal. 




318 



F£:STS OF on CHARD AND SMALL FRUITS 



in the spring are dark green or red, and have honey tubes yellow 
throughout. 

Ants are apt to be found in attendance on any of these aphids. They 
come to secure the substance that the lice excrete, commonly called 
" honey dew." 

Control of these insects is best achieved by prompt apphcation 
of a contact insecticide as soon as the lice are first seen. They are 
readily killed by spraying with tobacco decoction, or 7 per cent kero- 
sene emulsion, taking pains to do a thorough job. The tobacco 

extract will spread 
more readily if soap 
is dissolved in it. 

The Cherry Aphis 

(Myzus cerasi Fab.) 

Injury by this plant 
louse is usually no- 
ticed soon after the 
leaves" have unfolded 
in the spring. It will 
be found clustered 
thickly on tender 
shoots or leaves. It 
is a shining black 
aphid, and if exam- 
ined under a lens will 
be found to have 
long, slender honey 
tubes. The summer 
generations are wing- 
less, but in the fall 
winged individuals are produced. So far as known, this species is 
never found on any other host than cherry. It passes the winter in 
the egg stage. 




Fig. 489. — The Cherry Aphis. Original. 



PLANT-LICE INJURING THE FOLIAGE 



319 



To control, spray with tobacco extract or with kerosene emulsion 
as soon as the lice are first seen. 



The Currant Aphis {Myzus ribis Linn.) 

Like most other plant lice this species causes a curling up of the foliage 
infested. Both currants and gooseberries are subject to attack. The 
leaves curl tightly, and their upper 
surfaces show distinct raised areas or 
blisters, between the veins. 

The lice are one twelfth of an inch 
long, mottled green, and have red 
eyes. The pest passes the winter as 
shining eggs, attached to the woody 
parts of the plants. 

Contact sprays, such as tobacco ex- 
tract or kerosene emulsion, will kill 
them, but should be applied before 
the leaves are badly curled. 




Fig. 490. —Work of the Currant 
Aphis. Original. 



The Grapevine Aphis (Macrosiphum viticola Thos.) 

Dusky, soft-bodied plant lice with greenish legs cluster on the tender 
leaves and young shoots of grapevines. They appear in the early part 
of the season, and usually are not noticed after growth is well estabhshed 




Fig. 491. — Work of the Grapevine 
Aphis. Original. 




Fig. 492. — The Grapevine Aphis. 
Greatly enlarged. Original. 



320 



FESTS OF ORCHARD AND SMALL FRUITS 



in summer. Spraying with tobacco extract or kerosene emulsion will 
kill them. 



Plant Lice on Peach Foliage 

Two species of plant lice are common on peach foliage. They 
are especially likely to do notable injury in the spring, clustering 
on the tender shoots, curling the leaves, and sometimes dwarfing and 
distorting the forming fruit. 

The Green Peach Aphis (Myzus persicce Sulz.) hatches in early spring 
from eggs laid in crevices of the bark. The first lice are pink, but the 
next generation are light green, often with darker green stripes across 
the abdomen. These in turn give birth to a third brood, many of 

which, unUke the preceding, have wings. 
The latter fly to new food plants, and 
for the next two or three months breed 
on various garden crops, such as to- 
matoes, spinach, cabbage, and many 
others. In the fall another winged gen- 
eration returns to the peach or other re- 
lated trees, and the winter eggs are laid. 
The measures of control are spraying 
with 7 per cent kerosene emulsion or 
with tobacco extract when the lice are 
first observed. 

The Black Peach Aphis (Aphis persicm- 
niger Er. Sm.) lives the year round on 
peach. It differs from the preceding in 
the fact that colonies are maintained on 
the roots both summer and winter, as 
well as the colonies on the leaves and 
twigs in summer. The full-grown aphid 
is shining black. Control of this species 
must be directed toward the root-inhabiting forms as well as those 
above ground. In fact the former are often much the more abun- 
dant, while few or none may be seen on the foliage. See page 229. 




Fig 493. — The Black 
Aphis. Aerial form, 
inal. 



Peach 
Orig- 



PLANT-LICE INJURING THE FOLIAGE 321 

The remedy for those below ground is to draw away the earth from 
around the base of the tree, in a circle 4 or 5 feet in diameter, and 
apply 2 to 4 pounds of tobacco dust. The lice on the foliage are best 
treated with a spray of tobacco extract, or 7 per cent kerosene emulsion. 

Plant Lice on Plum Foliage 

Three species of plant hce are more or less common on the leaves and 
tender shoots of plums, especially in the spring. They tend to collect 
in clusters, the leaves are more or less distorted and curled by their 
attack, and the flowers and fruit may be badly injured. After two or 
three generations they leave the plum and fly to other hosts. 

The Brown Plum Aphis (Aphis setarioB Thos.) spends the summer 
on various grasses. It is dark in color and has white-marked legs and 
antennae. 

The Mealy Plum Aphis (Hyalopterus arundinis Fab.) is covered 
with a bluish white powder. The back of the body bears three darker 
obscure stripes, and the shape of the body is rather elongated. The 
honey tubes are short and rather thick. In summer the lice are found 
on grasses. 

The Hop Aphis (Phorodon humuli Schr.) flies to hop- vines in 
early summer, and is a pest rather on the latter than on the plum. 

The treatment is a thorough spraying with tobacco extract or 7 per 
cent kerosene emulsion just as soon as the lice are first observed. It 
is important to apply the spray promptly, before the leaves are badly 
curled. 

The Clover Mite {Bryohia pratensis Garm.) 
This tiny, 8-legged mite swarms 'over the foHage of clover in some 
seasons. In the West it feeds also on the leaves of various fruit 
trees, sucking their juices. The leaves attacked lose their green color 
and grow yellow and sickly. The mites survive the winter for the 
most part in the egg stage on the bark of fruit trees. See page 208. 

In summer trees should be sprayed with sulphur, 10 pounds to 50 
gallons of water, adding soap so that the sulphur will not float on top 
of the water, and keeping the mixture well stirred. Spraying with 



322 



PESTS OF ORCHARD AND SMALL FRUITS 



lime-sulphur solution in early spring, just as the buds are starting, is 
also an effectual treatment, resulting in killing the eggs. Use the mate- 
rial at the same strength as for San Jose scale. 

Red Spider on Fruit Tree Foliage {Tetranychus himaculatus Harvey) 

Another mite attacking the foliage of fruit trees, and sucking the 
juices, is the common red spider so often troublesome in greenhouses. 
It hibernates in the soil near the trees. When feeding on fruit tree 
foliage, this mite usually is green in color. It has two dark spots on 
the abdomen. It spins a very thin web on the under leaf surface, 
and feeds beneath. This habit will readily distinguish it from the 
clover mite just described. See page 207. 

Spraying with sulphur, 10 pounds to 50 gallons of water, is an 
effective treatment. Add soap to make the sulphur mix with the 
water, and keep the mixture well stirred. Screen the sulphur to 
remove lumps before adding to the water. 

The Rose-chafer (Macrodactylus subspinosus Fab.) 

Hordes of long-legged, sprawling beetles attack the blossoms of 
grapes, ripening fruit, such as cherries, and the blossoms of flowers. 




Fig. 494. — The Rose-chafer. Adults and work on cherries. Original. 

The body of the beetle is a little over one third of an inch long, rather 
slender and cyUndrical, and dull greenish or golden yellowish in color. 



BEETLES ATTACKING BLOSSOM AND FRUIT 



323 




Fig. 495. — The Rose-chafer. En- 
larged and natural size. Original. 



Because of its long legs the insect looks larger than it is. In habits 
it is sluggish. Holes are eaten in fruit, and the sides of unopened 
grape blossoms are eaten out so as 
to get at the stamens and pollen 
within. In flowers the beetles at- 
tack especially the central parts. 

The insect breeds in sandy ground. 
The larva is a small, whitish grub, 
and feeds on grass roots. In the 
fall it goes down below frost line, 
returning in spring and transform- 
ing. The adults come out in June. 
Eggs are laid in the ground, | to 4 inches below the surface. Egg- 
laying continues over a considerable period. There is one generation 
each year. 

Direct control is possible by spraying thoroughly with arsenate 

of lead, 5 pounds to 50 gallons of water, 
to which should be added 1 gallon 
of molasses. Without the molasses 
the spray is not so effective, as the 
beetles will avoid the parts of the plant 
that are coated with poison and seek 
out places where none of the spray has 
lodged. Spray first when the beetles 
are due, and again in one week. 

Hand picking is feasible in flower 

Fig. 496^- Larva of the Rose- ^^^^^^ j^ ^^^.^j ^^^^^^ ^^^ ^^_ 

chafer. Original. ^ \ ' _ 

jacent breeding grounds, especially 

sandy fields in sod or weeds. The insect does not breed in ground 

kept in clean cultivation. 




The Indian Euphoria (Euphoria inda Linn.) 

Ripening peaches and pears sometimes are eaten into by brownish, 
heavy-bodied beetles, about half an inch long, their wing covers marked 
with irregular darker patterns. They are slow moving and not easily 



324 



PESTS OF ORCHARD AND SMALL FRUITS 




Fig. 497. — The Indian Euphoria. 
Adults at work on peach. Orig- 
inal. 

tracted to a heap of decaying 
fruit. 

The Green June Beetle 

{Allorhina nitida Linn.) 

The feeding habits of this 

beetle are similar to those of 

the Indian Euphoria. Ripe 

fruits, especially peaches, 



disturbed. The species is 
two brooded, and it is the 
adults of the second brood 
that are found on the fruit. 
The larvse are thick-bodied 
grubs, and live on decaying 
vegetable matter. 

When the adults are nu- 
merous enough to be trouble- 
some, fruit should be picked 
a little before it is quite ripe, 
or the beetles may be at- 



FiG. 498. — The Indian Euphoria. Adult 
enlarged. Original. 



pears plums, or occasionally small fruits, are attacked and their 

substance eaten out. The beetle 
is a handsome fellow, its upper sur- 
face a velvety green, bordered with 
brown. The larva looks much hke 
a common white grub, and feeds on 
decaying vegetable matter. 

The means of control of the 

-c^ ^nn rr^u r- 7 r» *i adults is thc samc as that recom- 
FiG. 499. — The Green June Beetle. 

Shghtly enlarged. Original. mended for the Indian Euphoria. 




CONSPICUOUS WORMS FEEDING ON THE FRUIT 325 



The Green Fruit Worm {Xylina antennata Walk.) 

Occasionally the young fruits of apple, pear, or strawberry are eaten 
into by light-colored naked caterpillars, faintly striped with yellow. 
Usually the worms eat shallow, irregular 
holes in the sides of the fruit. 





Fig. 



500. — Apples injured by Green Fruit 
Worms. Original. 



Fig. 501. — a Green Fruit 
Worm. Original. 



They are seldom found in orchards that are sprayed early in the sea- 
son, especially if arsenical sprays are applied to the buds before blooming 
time. When injuring fruit, 
the worms may be jarred 
from the trees and killed. It 
is difficult to poison them at 
this time, because they are 
nearly full grown and are 
resistant to arsenicals ; there- 
fore spraying the fruit with 
poisons is not likely to be ^^^ 502.- Adult of a Green Fruit Worm, 
satisfactory. Xylina latidnerea. Original. 




326 PESTS OF ORCHARD AND SMALL FRUITS 

Xylina laticinerea Grt. is another common species of identical 
habits. 

The Cranberry Fruit-worm (Mineola vaccinii Riley) 
The growing berries are eaten into and the contents devoured by a 
small, greenish caterpillar, half an inch long when full grown. The work 

begins when the berries are small, and con- 
tinues until they are coloring up, the cat- 
erpillar entering one berry after another 
by a small hole, usually thus destroying 
three or four by the time it is full grown. 





Fig. 504. — Larva of the Cranberry Fruit-worm. 
Enlarged and natural size. Original. 

Infested berries ripen prematurely. Win- 
ter is passed by the caterpillar in a silk 
Fig. 503. — Work of the Cran- cocoon in the sand. 

berry Fruit-worm. Orig- ^j^^^.^ ^^^^^ j^ abundant, reflow at once 

inal. 

after picking, drawing off the water again 

after ten days. Paris green or arsenate of lead may be used when 
the worms first appear, but must be applied thoroughly and re- 
peated. 

The Gooseberry Fruit-worm (Zophodia grossularice Pack.) 

Active, pale green, shining caterpillars, three fourths of an inch long 
when mature, eat into the fruit of gooseberries and often web a number 
of berries together. When disturbed, they promptly let themselves 
down by a silk thread. There is one generation annually. Hiber- 
nation takes place on the ground in the pupal stage. 



WORMS BOEING INTO THE FRUIT 



327 




Fig. 505. — Work of the Gooseberry Fruit- worm. Slightly enlarged. Original. 

Hand picking is often the simplest means of control. If necessary, 
Paris green or arsenate of lead may be applied in order to stop a bad 
outbreak, but if the fruit is of 
good size, it will not be safe to 
use it. Plowing or cleaning up 
rubbish in the fall will help to re- 
duce injury the following season. 

The Raspberry Span-worm 

{Synchlora ctrata Fab.) 
The fruit of raspberries some- 
times is eaten by grayish or 
yellowish span-worms, three fourths of an inch long when mature. 

They are peculiar in their habit 
of decorating themselves with 
bits of flowers or leaves stuck 




Fig. 506. — Adult of the Gooseberry 
Fruit-worm. Slightly enlarged. Orig- 
inal. 





Fig. 507. — Adult of the Raspberry Span- Fig. 508.— The Raspberry Span- 
worm. Slightly enlarged. Original. worm. Original. 



328 



PESTS OF ORCHARD AND SMALL FRUITS 



on the short spines on the sides of their bodies. The adult is a delicate 
pale-green moth. 

Hellebore is the only poison that is safe to use on fruit of this kind. 




Fig. 



509. — Work of Climbing Cutworms. At left, larva of Peridroma margarir 
tosa. Original. 



Climbing Cutworms (Noctuidce) 

The expanding buds of fruit trees, especially in the case of newly 
set stock, sometimes are eaten out and destroyed, no worms being in 

evidence when the 
trees are looked 
over, although the 
trouble continues. 
This is the charac- 
teristic work of cer- 
tain cutworms, 
which, in the lack 
of other food to 
their liking, climb 




Fig. 510. — Adult of Cutworm, Peridroma margaritosa. 
Original. 



the trees and de- 



EATING INTO OR INJURING THE FRUIT BUDS 329 

vour the tender unfolding tissues, working at night and hiding by 
day. 

The remedy is a prompt apphcation of Paris green or arsenate of lead 
to the trees, so as to coat the buds. Instead of this, or in addition to 
it, a little poison bran mash may be placed at the base of each tree. 

Occasionally the buds of greenhouse plants are attacked in similar 
manner. A liberal dose of poison bran mash is then indicated, 
scattered on the the ground throughout the attack. 

The Imbricated Snout Beetle {Epiccerus imbricatus Say) 

Occasionally a rather large snout-beetle, its wings banded in zigzag 
pattern with brown and gray, its snout short and broad, feeds on the 
buds or young foliage of tree or bush fruits. See page 167. The 
beetle cannot fly. The larva lives in the ground, 

Paris green or arsenate of lead applied early as a spray will check 
the insect's work. 

The New York Weevil (Ithycerus novehoracensis Forst.) 

Large, gray snout-beetles, half an inch long and marked with black, 
appear on fruit trees in early spring, gnaw 
into the tender twigs, and eat into the base of 
buds. The larval stage is passed in the twigs 
of oak and hickory, and injury is always 
greatest on fruit trees close to woodland. 
Thorough spraying with Paris green or arse- 
nate of lead early in the spring when the buds 

„. . ^u 1 i- 7 t Fi«- 511. — The New 

are swelling is the only direct means of con- York Weevil. Slightly 

trol. enlarged. Original. 

The Pear Thrips {Euthrips pyri Danl.) 

The pear thrips is a minute insect attacking the newly opening flower 
and leaf buds of pear, and, in California,, those of prune, cherry, al- 
mond, peach, and apricot. 

The evidence of attack is a distorting, blackening, or complete kiUing 




330 



PESTS OF ORCHARD AND SMALL FRUITS 




Fig. 512. 



Pear 



of the opening buds. The adult thrips, which causes this injury, is 

a small, winged insect with sucking mouth parts. It comes out from its 

winter hiding place in the ground at the time that growth first starts, 

and as soon as the bud 
scales have parted, works 
its way down into the 
flower, puncturing the tis- 
sues and sucking the juices. 
Egg laying begins later, 
and the immature thrips 
feeds on the tender leaf tis- 
sues for two or three weeks. 
Then it drops to the ground, 
penetrates the soil to a 
depth of three or four 
inches, and remains there 
until the following spring. 
Direct control is possible 
by means of timely and 

thorough spraying with tobacco extract (the commercial preparation), 

to which has been added distillate oil emulsion so as to make a 2 per 

cent solution. The emulsion is prepared 

by dissolving 8 pounds of whale-oil soap 

in 3 gallons of boiling water, and adding 

5 gallons of distillate oil (28 degrees 

Baume), at once driving the mixture 

through a spray pump into a tank or 

barrel. One gallon of the emulsion to 24 

gallons of the tobacco water will give a 

2 per cent solution. The spraying must 

be done just as the buds begin to un- 
fold, and may need to be repeated. 
Deep plowing followed by thorough 

cultivation in the fall, to disturb and destroy the pupating larvae, is 

of value. 



Expanding buds killed by tht 
Thrips. Original. 




Fig. 513.— The Pear Thrips. 
Enlarged to fifteen times nat- 
ural size. Original. 



DW ARISING OR INJURING THE BUDS 331 

The Flower Thrips (Euthrips tritici Fitch) 

In the Southwest the opening flower and fruit buds of various fruit 
trees are subject to serious injury by minute, slender, active insects which 
enter them in large numbers and suck the juices of the tender, growing 
parts. The adults have two pairs of narrow, fringed wings. The 
younger stages are wingless, but do equal damage with the adults. 
The injury is sometimes so severe that young trees are killed. 

An effective remedy is thorough spraying with tobacco extract. 
Distillate oil emulsion may be added to this, as recommended for the 
pear thrips. The Flower Thrips is illustrated on page 26. 

The Peach Bud Mite {Tarsonemus waitei Bks.) 

Young peach trees in nurseries sometimes suffer severe injury to the 
terminal bud or shoot, due to the work of an exceedingly small, eight- 
legged mite. The main shoot dies, or fails to develop, and the tree 
then puts out several new shoots below, destroying its symmetry and 
rendering it worthless for transplanting. 

Some of the mites hibernate under bud scales, but it is possible that 
others may spend the winter on some other host plant. 

Careful pruning will help the tree to overcome injury and send out a 
new terminal shoot. Lateral buds that start up should be removed, 
in order to avoid a bushy top. Spraying with self-boiled lime sulphur 
early in the growing season may kill most of the mites. 

The Grape-blossom Midge {Contarinia johnsoni Sling.) 

The flower buds of early varieties of grapes sometimes fail to develop 
properly through the work of this tiny insect. Buds attacked show an 
abnormal swelling or redness, and only occasional berries will set, so 
that the bunches of fruit will be straggling, if not entirely wanting. 

The injury is due to the larvae of a minute midge that appears just 
as the buds are beginning to swell and lays its eggs in the opening ends. 
After three weeks the larvae are full grown, drop to the ground, and 
remain there until the following year. 

Spraying with tobacco extract when the buds first begin to swell 



332 



FESTS OF OnCHARD AND SMALL FRUITS 



will largely avert injury. The material should be applied thoroughly 
and with ample force. 

The Plum Curculio {Conotrachelus nenuphar Herbst.) 

The fruits of plum, apple, and cherry, and sometimes of peach, are 
subject to injury by this pest. Round or crescent-shaped punctures 

are made in the sides of the fruit by 
the adult beetles in feeding and egg 
laying. Within the fruit a grub or worm 
develops. 

The punctures made by the adult are 
of two sorts. In feeding, the beetle 





Fig. 514. — Egg-laying punc- 
tures of the Plum Curculio. 
Slightly enlarged. Original. 



Fig. 515. — The Plum Curculio. Enlarged and 
natural size. Original. 

gnaws out a small, round hole. When 
egg laying, it makes a crescent-shaped 
cut around the point at which it has in- 
serted its egg in the fruit. These in- 
juries are especially serious on young 

fruit, causing them to grow gnarly and misshapen. 

The beetle itself is quite small, three sixteenths of an inch in 

length, dark in color with lighter markings, and has four ridges or 

humps on its back. Its mouth parts are at the end of a snout. 

The larva or grub is whitish, one third of an inch long, and entirely 

without feet. 
The beetles spend the winter in rubbish or similar shelter in or near 



GRUBS DEVELOPING WITHIN THE FRUIT 



333 



the orchard. Early in the spring they come out; and as soon as the 
buds are unfolding feed sparingly on the tender tissues. When fruit 
has set, egg laying begins and continues 
for several weeks. Infested fruit is apt 
to drop. The larva enters the ground to 
transform. There is a second generation 
in midsummer, the adult of this liiding 
away until the following spring. 

Control is best directed toward killing 
the overwintering beetles by spraying 
the trees with arsenate of lead or Paris 
green as soon as the buds are fairly open- 
ing in the spring, repeating later if nec- 
essary. Where trees are sprayed at the 
time that the petals fall, this will consti- 
tute the second spraying. In addition, 
it will pay to eliminate rubbish as far as 
possible from the orchard or its neigh- 
borhood, and to adopt clean cultivation. 
The former will destroy the hiding places 
of the beetles, and the latter will kill 

many of the larvte that have entered the soil to transform. The 
destruction of fallen fruit at frequent intervals is of value, where 
feasible. 

On plum trees the beetles may be controlled by jarring them from the 
trees in the early morning, spreading a sheet beneath to catch them. 




Fig. 516. — Larva and work 
of the Plum Curculio in 
cherry. Slightly enlarged. 



The Apple Curculio (Anthonomus quadrigibbus Say) 

Usually the curculio attacking the fruit of the apple is the plum 
curculio. Sometimes the depredator is the pest here considered. The 
work of this species may be distinguished from that of the plum curculio 
by the fact that the punctures that the apple curculio makes are com- 
paratively inconspicuous. The beetle itself is similar to the plum 
curculio, but is stouter and chunkier, has a larger snout, and has four 
very prominent humps on its back. 



334 



PJESTS OF ORCHARD AND SMALL FRUITS 




The life round is much like that of the other species. The adults 
hibernate in any convenient shelter, and lay their eggs in the young 

fruit. The larva is a footless grub. 
Its body is enlarged in a sort of 
hump back of the head. It pu- 
pates in the soil, and the adults 
emerge in the latter part of sum- 
mer, soon going into hibernation. 
On small trees jarring is an effec- 
tive plan. On larger trees early 
spraying with arsenate of lead or 
Paris green will poison many of 
the beetles. Rubbish of all sorts 

rr., A 1 r- r TT should be kept cleaned up, in order 
Fig. 517. — The Apple Curcuho. En- ^ ^' 

larged and natural size. Original. to ehminate winter hiding places. 

The Plum Gouger {Anthonomus scutellaris Lee.) 
The plum gouger is a brownish beetle, one fourth of an inch long, 
and may be distinguished from the plum curcuho by the absence of the 
characteristic humps found on the wing 
covers of the curcuho. 

Early in the season holes are eaten in the 
base of the flower, and the beetle feeds 

on the part 

within that 

would later 

become the 

fruit. After 

the plums are 

of some size 

the adult 

punctures them and lays an egg 

within, the grub living inside the 
Fig. 519. — The Plum Gouger. <. . i mi i i. i - 

Adult, enlarged and natural ^0™^^ S^^^' The adult does not 

size. Original. make a crescent-shaped cut around 





Fig. 518. — Feeding punc- 
ture made by the Plum 
Gouger. Original. 



GBUBS DEVELOPING WITHIN THE FRUIT 



335 



the punctures as does the curcuUo. In feeding the beetle gouges out 
small round holes. 

The grub pupates inside the fruit, and then emerges as an adult. In- 
fested plums usually drop before the adult is due to emerge. Hiber- 
nation takes place in the adult stage. 

Jarring the trees to catch the beetles is a fairly effective treatment. 
Prompt destruction of fallen fruit is of value, where practicable. Early 
spraying with arsenate of lead or Paris green, as recommended for the 
plum curculio, is hkely 



to kill most of 
hibernating adults. 



the 




Fig. 520. 



-Work and larva of the Grape Curculio, 
Slightly enlarged. Original. 



The Grape Curculio 

{Craponius incequalis 
Say) 
The fruit of grapes is 
sometimes found in- 
fested by a white, fleshy, 
inactive grub, footless, 
and tapering towards 
each end. This is the larval stage of the grape curculio. It may 
readily be distinguished from the other grub commonly found in 
grapes, that of the grape berry moth, which has distinct legs, is more 

slender and cylindrical, and is greenish 
or light purplish in color. 

The adult beetle is one tenth of an inch 
long, quite broad, and brown in color. 
It appears from hibernation when the 
grapes are blossoming, and feeds on the 
foliage. Later it begins laying eggs in the 
berries. The grub, when mature, drops 
to the ground, transforms in the soil, and a 

new generation of beetles is abroad in late 
Fig. 521.— The Grape Cur- , ,, , . , ., 

culio. Enlarged and nat- summer, shortly entermg hibernation, 
ural size. Original. There is thus one generation each year. 




336 



PESTS OF ORCHARD AND SMALL FRUITS 



Spraying with arsenate of lead or Paris green will readily poison 
the adults because of the long time during wliich they feed on the grape 

fohage. The poison should be applied 
just after the grapes finish blooming. 
Vineyards that are sprayed regularly with 
arsenicals for other pests, such as the 
grape berry moth, will not find this in- 
sect in evidence. If it is found that 
many berries are infested, these should 
be collected and destroyed. 




Fig. 522. — The Quince Cur- 
culio. Enlarged and natural 
size. Original. 



The Quince Curculio 

{Conotrachelus cratoegi Walsh) 
Both the adult and the grub of this 
species injure the fruit of quinces. The 
former eats holes into the fruit, when 
it is still small. The latter burrows 
within the flesh, making wandering 
cavities, and finally eats its way out 
through the skin. Quinces that have 
been punctured by the adult grow 
misshapen. 

The adult curculio is a small, snout 
beetle, one fourth of an inch long, its 
body broadest at the middle and its 
back marked with seven longitudinal 
ridges. Eggs are laid under the skin 
of the young fruit. The grubs enter 
the ground when full grown, and re- 
main there until the following spring. 

The only effective remedy is to jar 
the beetles from the trees in the early 
morning, catching them on sheets and 
destroying them. The apphcation of ^^^ 523. -Work of the Straw- 
poison sprays is of no avail. berry Weevil. Original. 




ORUBS DEVELOPING WITHIN THE FRUIT 



337 




Fig. 524.- 
Weevil. 
Original. 



- Larvae of the Strawberry 
Enlarged and natural size. 



The Strawberry Weevil (Anthonomus signatus Say) 

The work of the strawberry weevil is conspicuous and unmistakable. 

Flower buds, soon due to open, are seen to droop and bend over, and 

in a few days most of them will 

break off and fall to the ground. 

If one is cut open at this time, 

a small, wliite grub will be 

found within, feeding on the 

inner tissues of the bud. After 

laying an egg in a bud the 

beetle punctures the stem just 

below, so that the bud droops 

and soon falls. The grub, when 

full grown, transforms within 

the bud on the ground. The 

new lot of beetles feed for a time in various places and then hide 

away until the next year. Only staminate varieties are attacked. 

Early spraying with arsenate of lead 

or Paris green will kill many beetles. 

The material should be applied as soon 

as the first buds begin forming. All 

rubbish should be cleaned up around 

the field. When badly infested, the 

plants may be burned over at once 

after picking. Wild blackberries and 

strawberries should be destroyed. It 

should be remembered also that pistil- 
FiG. 525. — The Strawberry , ^ . ^. . - 

Weevil. Adult, enlarged and ^^^^ ^^"^^^^^ ^^^ ^^^^^^ ^^^"^ ^^^ 
natural size. Original. mjury. 




The Codling Moth {Carpocapsa pomonella Linn.) 

A pinkish, rather fleshy worm eats cavities within the fruit of apples, 
especially through and around the core, and finally bores a large hole 
to the surface. 



338 



PESTS OF ORCHARD AND SMALL FRUITS 




Fig. 526. — Section through apple showing characteristic 
work of the Codling Moth. Original. 



The adult is an inconspicuous, brownish moth, and emerges in the 
spring from a cocoon usually located under rough scales on the bark 
of the tree. Eggs are laid on leaves or some- 
times on the fruit 




Fig. 527. — Larva of 
the Codling Moth. 
Slightly enlarged. 
Original. 



Fig. 528. — Cocoon of 
the Codling Moth un- 
derneath a piece of 
bark. At the top, the 
pupa. Original. 



makes its way to the 

nearest apple and 

enters the young fruit through the calyx end. 

of its life inside, and when mature, eats its way out, travels to a 



Fig. 529. — The Cod- 
ling Moth. Adult, 
slightly enlarged. 

Original. 

It feeds for the rest 



WORMS DEVELOPING WITHIN THE FRUIT 



339 



suitable shelter, and spins its cocoon. Here it may remain until the 
next spring, but in the Central and Southern states there is a second 
brood. The larvae of the 
latter often feed merely on 
the surface of the apple in- 
stead of boring into it. 

Control consists in spray- 
ing with arsenate of lead. 
The most important point is 
to apply the material just 
after the blossoms fall, while 
the calyx cup is still open, 
and to direct the spray so 
that the poison will lodge in 
the blossom end of the up- 
turned apples. A second 
spraying about three weeks 
later, at the time when the 




Fig. 530. — The time to spray for the Cod- 
ling Moth. The calyx still open. Original. 



worms are just hatching, will augment the value of the first, because 
the larvae feed a httle on the leaf before going to the apple. For the 

second brood in midsummer 
arsenate of lead is used, as 
for the first brood. 

The Lesser Apple Worm 

(Laspeyresia {Enarmonid) 

prunivora Walsh) 
Injury to the fruit of ap- 
ples by the lesser apple worm 
is often confused with that 
of the codling moth, but is 
distinct on careful examina- 
tion. Early in the season 

Fig. 531. — Too late to spray for the Cod- *^® ^^J^^^ ^^ ^P* ^^ take the 
ling Moth. The calyx closed. Original. form of small cavities eaten 




340 



PESTS OF ORCHARD AND SMALL FRUITS 



into the surface of the fruit at the calyx end. When the fruit is 
ripening, the damage is more conspicuous and more serious. At 

this time the second 
brood larvae are ac- 
tive, and blotch mines 
are made just under 
the skin of the apple. 
The larva within may 
penetrate the pulp to 
a depth of half an 
inch, or occasionally 
nearly to the core. 
Frequently the work 
goes on for some time 
after the fruit is 
picked. 

The parent insect 
is a small moth. Eggs 
are laid soon after the 




Fig. 532. 



Injury by the Lesser Apple Worm. 
Original. 



fruit is set. The full-grown larva is one fourth to one third of an inch 
long. Pupation takes place under scales of bark on limbs, or some- 
times in the calyx end of the fruit. 
The larvae of the second brood 






Fig. 533. — Larvae of the Lesser Apple 
Worm. Enlarged. Original. 

pass the winter in inconspicuous 
cocoons, in situations similar to 
those of the first brood, or in barrels 
in which fruit has been placed. 




Fig. 534. — Section through apple 
showing characteristic work of the 
Lesser Apple Worm. Enlarged. 
Original. 



SMALL WORMS DEVELOPING WITHIN THE FRUIT 341 



Control measures are the same as those recommended for the codhng 
moth : thorough spraying with arsenate of lead just after the petals 
fall, and again the first of August. 




Fig. 535. — Adult of the Lesser Apple Worm, 
and natural size. Original. 



Enlarged 



The Grape Berry Moth {Polychrosis viteana Clem.) 

Most " wormy " grapes, so often seen on vines, exhibit the charac- 
teristic work of the grape berry moth. While the berry is still green, 
a purphsh spot appears on one side. If it is cut open, a small 
greenish or purphsh caterpillar will be found within. 

This is the larva of the sec- 
ond brood. Earher in the sea- 
son, when the grapes are in 
blossom or the berries 'are just 
forming, the inconspicuous first 
brood of caterpillars is on the 
vines, eating into the blossoms 
and tiny fruit, and webbing up 
the clusters. 

The insect overwinters as a 
pupa in a little cell made by 




Fig. 536. — Section through grape, show- 
ing larva and work of the Grape Berry- 
Moth. Original. 



342 



PESTS OF ORCHARD AND SMALL FRUITS 



cutting out a small piece of a leaf. These cells break loose from the 
leaves after the latter fall. The moths emerge in the spring and lay 

on the stems or fruit. 




Fig. 537. —The Grape Berry Moth. En 
larged and natural size. Original. 



The second brood of moths are 
out in July, and in the North 
there is a partial third brood in 
August. 

Thorough and timely spray- 
ing with arsenate of lead will 
control this pest. The first 
spray must be appHed just be- 
fore blooming, the second just 
after, and the third when the 
berries are half grown. Soap may be added to the spray material to 
make it spread and stick to better advantage. If the vineyard is 
plowed in the fall, many of the overwintering pupae will be buried 
or killed. 

The Raspberry Byturus {Byturus unicolor Say) 

The fruit of red raspberries sometimes is stunted by the work of 
this beetle and its grub. Occasionally the leaves are riddled by the 
feeding of the beetles. 

The adult beetle is one seventh 
inch long, and brownish in color. 
It appears in spring, feeds on the 
foliage, and eats into the flower 
buds. In midsummer the grubs 
are at work and will be found in 
the thick white base on which the 
berry is borne. The grub is one 
fourth inch long, and marked across 
each segment with brown. Infested 
berries ripen early and are dwarfed. 
in the soil. 




Fig. 538. — The Raspberry Byturus. 
Adult, enlarged and natural size. 
Original. 



The larva spends the winter 
Control is best secured by spraying the foUage with arsenate of lead 



MAGGOTS TUNNELING WITHIN THE FRUIT 



343 



or Paris green to poison the beetles when they appear in the spring. 
Since they feed freely on the leaves, the majority of them will be killed 
by an application of poison at this time. 

The Apple Maggot (Rhagoletis pomonella Walsh) 

In the northeastern states early or sweet apples, or sometimes late 
fruit, are often infested with the so-called " railroad worm," a small, 
whitish maggot which tunnels here and there through the pulp of the 




Fig. 539. — Section through apple, showing charac- 
teristic work of the Apple Maggot. Original. 

apple as it ripens, making a small, brown track wherever it goes. In 
thin-skinned varieties, these tunnels are apt to show through from the 
outside as wandering, brown tracks. This insect must clearly be dis- 
tinguished from the common " apple worm " or codhng moth, which 
eats preferably in and around the core and gnaws a large and con- 
spicuous hole to the surface. 

A two-winged fly, with oblique-banded wings, is the parent of the rail- 
road worm. It appears in July, and lays its eggs, one at a time, under- 



344 PESTS OF ORCHARD AND SMALL FRUITS 




Fig. 540. — Adult of the Apple Maggot. Original. 

neath the skin of the apple. The maggot feeds in the pulp, completing 
its growth after the apple has fallen from the tree and has become more 
or less mellow. It then bores its way out, enters the ground, and re- 
mains there until the following July. 

The maggot cannot be killed by spray- 
ing because it feeds wholly within the 
pulp of the fruit during its entire life. 
Control consists in keeping dropped 
fruit picked up, so that the maggots 
will not have a chance to enter the 
ground. Very early fruit should be 
picked up twice a week, fall fruit once 
a week, and winter fruit once in two or 
Fig. .541. — Egg of the Apple three weeks. 

Maggot, inserted beneath skin -^ • , ^ i . i • ■ 

of fruit. Greatly enlarged. ^1^^ stock may be turned mto an 

Original. orchard to eat up the apples as they 




MAGGOTS FEEDING WITHIN THE FRUIT 



345 



drop. Pigs, sheep, or cattle will often accomplish this to good advan- 
tage. Chickens wih hunt out and destroy many of the pupae in the soil. 




Fig. 542. — Burrows of the Apple Maggot, show- 
ing through skin of fruit. Original. 



The Cherry Fruit Maggot {Rhagoletis cingulata Loew.) 

Small, whitish, footless maggots about one third of an inch long are 
found in the pulp of ripening cherries, where they tunnel about, causing 
decayed cavities. The adult is a 
small fly with barred wings. Eggs 
are laid under the skin of the 





Fig. 543. —Adult of the Cherry Fruit 
Maggot, enlarged and natural size. 
Original. 



Fig. 544. — The Cherry Fruit Mag- 
got. Larvae, enlarged and natural 
size. Original. 



346 



PESTS OF ORCHARD AND SMALL FRUITS 




fruit in midsummer. When full grown, the maggot leaves the fruit 
and enters the ground, its skin contracting and hardening to form a 
puparium. It remains there until the following season. 

Where trees are badly infested, chickens may be made use of to 

scratch up and eat the puparia. 
No measures in the way of 
spraying are available. 

The Pear Midge 

{Contarinia pyrivora Riley) 

Early in the season the 

young fruit of pears becomes 

stunted and distorted. If 
Fig. 545. — Section through young pear, 
showing work and larva of the Pear 
Midge. Original. 

fruit is cut open, tiny maggots will be 

found within, working especially in and 

around the core. 
Eggs are laid when the buds first open 

by an exceedingly small midge. After 

completing its growth the maggot leaves 

the fruit and enters the ground, where it remains until the follow- 
ing spring. There is one brood 
annually. 

No satisfactory means of con- 
trol has been devised. 



The Currant Fruit-fly 
{Epochra canadensis Loew.) 
In early summer a small, white 
maggot may be found working in 
the berries of currants or goose- 
berries. The parent insect is a 
yellowish, two-winged fly with 
barred wings. Eggs are laid 




Fig. 546. — Larvae of the 
Pear Midge, enlarged and 
natural size. Original. 




Fig. 547. — Work of the Currant Fruit- 
fly. Original. 



DWARFING OR SCARRING THE FRUIT 



347 



under the skin of the fruit. Infested fruit usually falls to the ground. 
When full grown, the maggot bores out of the berry, enters the 
ground, and remains there until the following spring, when the adults 

issue once more. 
The use of poultry to pick up 





Fig. 548. — Section through currant, 
showing work and larva of the Cur- 
rant Fruit-fly. Enlarged. Original. 



the fallen infested fruit is 
tically 



prac- 



FiG. 549.— The Currant Fruit-fly 
Adult, enlarged and natural size, 
Original. 



the only 
available 
remedy, 

unless it is feasible to have the fruit gathered 

by hand. 

The Tarnished Plant-bug 

{Lygus pratensis Linn.) 
A brownish bug, not over one fifth of an 
inch long when full grown, occasionally 
injures the buds and the young fruit on 
apple trees by sucking the juices. Buds are 
dwarfed or killed, and sometimes the fruit 
shows marked dimples or similar deformities, 
due to egg-laying punctures of the adults. 
The adults hibernate in rubbish. If the 




Fig. 550.— Work of a Plant- 
bug, Lygus invitus. Orig- 
inal. 



348 



PESTS OF ORCHARD AND SMALL FRUITS 



orchard and its surroundings are thoroughly cleaned of weeds and 
litter in the fall, there is not hkely to be noticeable damage. The 

bugs may be jarred from small trees. 

A related species, Lygus invitus 
Say, is a pest on pears, scarring the 
fruit by its feeding punctures. 

The Apple Red Bugs 

( Heterocordylus malinus Reut., and 

Lygidea mendax Reut.) 

Sucking bugs, about one fourth of 
an inch long, known as apple red bugs 
because of their brilHant color in 
their younger stages, puncture young 
fruit, causing it to grow distorted. 
There are two species, similar in 
appearance. 
Eggs are inserted in the bark, and hatch in early spring. The young 

feed at first on the newly expanding 

foliage, making numerous punctures and 

giving the leaves at times a red appear- 
ance. Later they attack the fruit. 
The remedy is to spray with tobacco 

extract just after the leaves expand and 

before the blossoms open, so as to kill 

the younger stages soon after they hatch 

from the egg. Soap may be added to 

the spray material. 




Fig. 551. — Work of Apple Red 
Bugs. Original. 




Fig. 552. —The Negro Bug. 
Enlarged and natural size. 
Original. 



The Negro Bug {Thyreocons {Corimelcena) pulicaria Germ.) 
Exceedingly small, hard-shelled, shiny black bugs, resembling tiny 
beetles, sometimes feed on the ripe fruits of raspberry or blackberry, 
giving the fruit an unpleasant flavor. Usually they are not common 
enough to demand attention. No remedial measures are known. 



CHAPTER XXIV 



Insect Pests of the Household and Stored Products 



House Flies 



The commonest fly found in houses is the species properly known as 
the House Fly (Musca doraestica Linn.). It is of medium size, grayish, 
and has mouth parts dilated at the end in a sort of lobe, fitted for tak- 
ing up hquid food. Its 
early stages are passed in 
moist, decaying matter, 
especially horse manure or 
other excrement. These 
flies never bite ; but they 
are pernicious visitors be- 
cause of their filthy habits, 
and their known agency 
in the dissemination of 
disease. 

A second species, the 
Stable Fly {Stomoxys cal- 
citrans Linn.), is the pest 
that annoys us by " biting," especially before storms. It has piercing 
mouth parts. 

Other species often are observed, but the two named above are in 
the great majority, and of these two the house fly is by far the more 
numerous. 

Since flies are known to carry disease, it is of prime importance to 
be rid of them in our homes. Proper screening is the first requisite, 
and nothing can be accomplished without this fundamental protection. 

349 




Fig. 553.— The House Fly. Original. 



350 PESTS OF THE HOUSEHOLD AND STORED PRODUCTS 



But in addition we must look to the breeding places, especially manure 
heaps. Usually the most feasible plan of caring for these is to inclose 



or otherwise screen them. 




Fig. 554. 



-The Stable 
natural size. 



If the manure can be removed once a 
week, flies cannot complete 
their life round in it. 

An effective means of 
A \ poisoning flies that have 
iffi^\ \ already gained access to a 
^ room is as follows : 

Add two tablespoonfuls 
(1 ounce) of 40 per cent 
formalin to one pint (16 
ounces) of sweet milk, or 
of equal parts milk and 
water. Pour this out in 
shallow plates, so that flies 
can get at it easily. A 
piece of bread placed in 
the middle of each plate 



Fly. Enlarged 
Original. 



and 



will allow more space for flies to alight and feed. 

Catching flies by means of traps, or with sticky fly paper, is a uni- 
versal practice, and helps in reducing the numbers within a room, but 
the method described above will usuaUy be found more rapid and 
effective. 

Mosquitoes [Culicidoe) 

Mosquitoes are of many species, but most have at least one point 
in common ; their immature stages are found in stagnant water. They 
do not require breeding places of large area. An open rain-water 
barrel, an old watering trough, tin cans containing rain water; aU 
such places provide suitable breeding ground. 

The larvae are familiarly known as " wrigglers," and live on minute 
animal or vegetable life, beneath the surface of the water. They must 
come to the surface occasionaUy to breathe. Following the larval, 
there is an active pupal stage, preceding the emergence of the adult. 



MOSQUITOES AND ANTS 351 

The entire life round requires only ten days to two weeks under favor- 
able circumstances. 

Any thorough effort at control is best directed toward destroying 
the breeding places or preventing the insect from breeding in such as 
cannot be destroyed. The latter may be accomplished by pouring oil 
on the water, so as to prevent the larvae from reaching the air when 
they come up to breathe. Large tanks above ground may be screened. 
In a word, stagnant water must be eliminated, or mosquitoes kept 
from it. In addition careful screening of houses is highly desirable, 
especially since some diseases are carried by certain species. 

In clearing a room of mosquitoes a fairly satisfactory substance is 
available in pyrethrum, or '^ Persian insect powder." This may be 
heaped up in little piles on a pan and lighted ; or, better, it may be 
poured out on a piece of tin or a pan set over a kerosene lamp. In 
the latter case not much smoke is given off, but the volatile oil that 
stupifies the insect permeates the air. 

Another and successful fumigant consists of 1 part of saltpeter 
mixed with 3 parts of powdered jimson weed, and burned on a tin pan. 
Eight ounces to 1000 cubic feet is sufficient. 

House Ants 

The commonest ants in houses are the '^ little red ant," Monomorium 
pharaonis L., and a closely related species, somewhat larger and black 
in color, Monomorium minutum Mayr. 

In getting rid of ants it is a great help if the main colonies can be 
hunted out and destroyed. The black ant lives outdoors, and enters 
the house through some convenient crack. The little red ant always 
has its nest in the walls or under the floors. 

Either may be caught and killed in large numbers by saturating a 
sponge with sweetened water, placing it where they are abundant, and 
now and then dropping the sponge into boihng water. Scraps of bone 
or meat will do as well, and should be burned when well covered. 

A successful method of fighting ants has recently been devised in 
California in the warfare against the notorious Argentine Ant {Iri- 
domyrmex humilis Mayr.), which overruns dwellings, stores, and ware- 



352 PESTS OF THE HOUSEHOLD AND STORED PRODUCTS 




Fig. 555. —The Little Red Ant. En- 
larged and natural size. Original. 



houses and is an intolerable pest. In this case it is not possible to 
hunt out and destroy the nests because they are made in every con- 
ceivable location. The plan consists in setting out numerous supplies 
of a dilute, slow-acting poison, which the foraging ants not only eat 

but carry back to the nests and 

feed to the young. By using a 
diluted poison the colony itself is 
slowly exterminated, as well as the 
foragers that go out from it. 

The poison is prepared by dis- 
solving 5 pounds of sugar in 1| 
pints of water, placing it in a 
double boiler and heating gently. 
Then dissolve one fourth ounce of 
sodium arsenite in a httle hot 
water, and add this to the syrup 
solution. Place a sponge in a 
can or a glass jar with a tin lid, 
and punch three or four holes in the lid. Moisten the sponge with 
the poisoned syrup. If ants avoid the jar after a time, move it 
slightly, and they will again visit it. In large buildings it is neces- 
sary to provide several of the jars for each floor. In residences 
from one to six jars usually will be suflacient. Often one will do the 
work. 

The above material is poisonous to human beings, and proper care 
should be taken in its preparation and use. 

The best barrier to prevent ants from gaining access to places where 
food is placed or stored is the so-called " ant tape." To make this 
prepare a saturated solution of corrosive sublimate and water by heat- 
ing an excess of the crystals in water in a granite or porcelain vessel 
(not iron), cooling and filtering. Soak common cotton tape in this for 
several hours, then take out, hang up, and dry. Ants will not cross 
this tape. It will remain effective for a year, but must not be placed 
in contact with any iron, tin, or aluminum. It must be remembered 
that corrosive sublimate is a dangerous poison. 



ROACHES AND FLEAS 



353 



Roaches 

At least four species of roaches are common in the United States: 
the American Cockroach {Periplaneta americana Linn.), the Oriental 
Cockroach {Blatta orientalis Linn.), the Australian Roach {Periplaneta 
australasice Fab.), and the German Roach, or " Croton Bug" (Blatella 
germanica Linn.). 

All are more or less domesticated, eat any kind of food product, and 
leave behind them a disgusting odor. 

In some species both males and females are winged, while in others 
the female has only short remnants of wings. All are alike in having 




Fig. 556. — The German Roach, or "Croton Bug. 

Original. 



SHghtly enlarged. 



The young look much like the 
From one to three years are 



flat, thin bodies, and strong, biting jaws, 
adults, but are of course much smaller, 
required for their development. 

A number of prepared poisons are on the market for the destruction 

of roaches, and some of these are fairly effective. Various traps are 

employed. Large numbers may be killed by setting out two shallow 

dishes, one containing flour and plaster of Paris mixed together, and 

2a 



354 PESTS OF THE HOUSEHOLD AND STORED PRODUCTS 

the other water. Use four parts of flour to one part of plaster of 
Paris. Arrange the dishes so that roaches can easily climb on them and 
pass from one to the other. Badly infested buildings may be entirely 
cleared by fumigation with hydrocyanic acid gas. Great care should 
be taken in using this treatment, for it is violently poisonous. 

Fleas 

Fleas are too well known to need description. Where houses become 
infested, the trouble is nearly always traceable to a pet cat or dog, 
although the pest may be brought in on clothing of a visitor. The 
species usually observed is the common Cat 
and Dog Flea {Ctenocephalus canis Curt.). 
J^^^^^ The adult flea lays eggs among the hairs of 

^^^^Sr ^ts animal host. These drop off, and the egg 

VT tS ^ hatches to form a minute, white, slender larva, 

V\^ ^^ wliich lives in cracks in the floor or other pro- 

tected places, feeding on any available organic 

matter, such as hairs, or even dust. The 
Fig. 557. — The Cat and , , c , ^ ^ ^ ^^ i m^ 

D Fl E 1 r ed ^^^^^ transforms to a pupa, and later the adult 

and natural size. Orig- emerges, ready to leap on the first cat or dog 

i^^^- that comes its way, or on a human being. 

To rid a house of fleas all cracks must be washed with hot suds, and 
preferably dosed with gasoline. At the same time any animal pets 
must be looked after and cleared of the insect. Insect powder dusted 
thoroughly into the animal's fur will stupefy the fleas and cause them 
to drop off. They may then be gathered up and destroyed. 

Another treatment is to scatter over the floor of a room 4 or 5 pounds 
of naphthaline, and keep the place tightly closed for 24 hours. This 
will effectually rid a room of the adult insects, but will not be likely to 
affect any eggs that might be present. The naphthaline may be swept 
up and used over again. 

The Bedbug (Civiex lectularius Linn.) 

The bedbug is an ancient and cosmopohtan insect, existing through- 
out the world. It has become whoUy domesticated, and Hves entirely 



BEDB UG — CL THES MOTHS 



355 



in human dwellings, hiding away in crevices by day, and coming out 
to suck the blood of its unfortunate host by night. Normally its life 

round requires about three months, but it 

can exist for a long time in a house tempo- 
rarily vacated. In cities it sometimes 
migrates from vacant residences to others 
near b}^ that are occupied. The young are 
similar in shape to the adults, and, like their 
parents, have a strong sucking beak. 

A thorough course of treatment of all 
hiding places is necessary for their eradica- 




FiG. 558. — The Bedbug. 
Enlarged and natural 
size. Original. 




Fig. 559. — Head of Bedbug. Greatly 
enlarged. Original. 



tion, unless it is possible to vacate 
a house for two or three days and 
fumigate with hydrocyanic acid gas. 
Gasoline, corrosive subhmate, or tur- 
pentine may be used in cracks to kill 
them. In vacant houses sulphur 
may be burned, using it at the rate 
of 2 pounds to the 100 cubic feet, 
and placing the material in a metal 
or earthen dish, which should in 
turn be placed within a larger 
dish, to guard against danger of 
fire. 



The Clothes Moths 

Several species of tiny, dusky moths lay eggs in woolens or furs, 
the resulting larvae feeding on the garments, eating holes in them, and 
often doing irreparable damage. The larva of a common species. 
Tinea pellionella L., makes a little case within which it feeds. 

In the Northern states this particular species occurs in the larval 
state — the only stage in which it is directly destructive — in summer 
only. In the South it may occur all the year. The adults are on the 
wing at any time in the warmer months. They are active and shy, 
and avoid the light. 



356 PESTS OF THE HOUSEHOLD AND STORED PRODUCTS 

Attack is most severe on winter clothing laid away for the summer. 
Garments should be hung out in the sunlight and thoroughly brushed 




Fig. 560.— Work of Clothes Moths. Original. 

or beaten before being packed away. They may then be inclosed in 
boxes, and the cracks sealed with gummed paper. This work should 
be done before hot weather has arrived. Deterrants, such as naphtha- 




FiG. 561. — A Clothes Moth, Tinea pellionella. Enlarged and natural size. 

Original. 



line or moth balls, are of moderate value. Upholstered furniture and 
the like should be sprayed or sponged with gasoline two or three times 
in summer. 



CARPET BEETLE — SILVER FISH — CHEESE SKIPPER 357 



The Carpet Beetle, or Buffalo Moth {Anthrenus scrophularice L.) 

A small, hairy, oval larva, about one fourth of an inch long, feeds on 
carpets, working from the under side, and usually following the line of 
a crack in the floor. The adult is a beetle, three sixteenths of an inch in 




Fig. 562. — Work of the Car- 
pet Beetle. Original. 




Fig. 563.— The Carpet Beetle. 
Enlarged and natural size. 
Original. 



length, dark in color, and irregularly mottled with white. The beetles 
appear through the fall and winter. 

Where rugs are used, no damage is recorded as a rule. If carpets 
are necessary, and infestation is in progress, it is essential to take up 
the floor coverings, spray them with gasoline, and wash all cracks with 
hot suds, following with gasoline. 



The Silver Fish (Lepisma saccharina L.) 

Substances containing sugar, starch, or sizing are sometimes injured 
by a tiny, active, wingless insect of a silvery appearance, having very 
long antennae and three long feelers at the hind end of the body. It 
invariably runs quickly away when objects on which it is at work are 
brought to the light. 

Pyrethrum dusted into places where it hides will kill them, or they 
may be poisoned by dipping pieces of cardboard into a thick paste in 
which has been mixed Paris green, and slipping these into cracks where 
they are abundant. 



358 PESTS OF THE HOUSEHOLD AND STORED PRODUCTS 

The Cheese Skipper (Piophila casei) 

The softer kinds of cheese and the fatty parts of hams or bacon are 
the favorite breeding places of minute, slender maggots that have a 
way of curling the body and then suddenly straightening it, so that 
they throw themselves some little distance. They are the larvae of 
very small, grayish fhes. 

Infested materials should be removed, and shelving or bins given a 
thorough cleaning, for the maggots will develop in very small quantities 
of grease or other suitable material. It is sometimes necessary to 
fumigate, in order to kill the adult flies that are in hiding. 

The Angoumois Grain-moth {Sitotroga cerealella Oliv.) 

In the Southern states stored grain is severely attacked by a very 
small grub which starts work within the kernels in the field, and con- 
tinues its depredations after the grain is harvested and stored. The 




Fig. 564. — Work of the Angoumois Grain-moth. Original. 



GRAIN-MOTHS 



359 




outward evidence of its work is seen in tiny, round holes through the 
hard outer coating of the grain, showing where adults have emerged. 
Frequently the adult moths, small, buff-colored '' millers," are notice- 
ably abundant, especially at threshing time. 

There are half a dozen or more generations in the course of the year. 
The earhest moths in spring at once fly to the grain fields and two or 

three generations 

are reared in the 

growing kernels. 

The grubs of 

the last are har- 
vested along with 

the grain, and 

the work goes on 

as long as warm Fig. 566.— The Angoumois Grain- 
lasts, moth. Enlarged and natural size. 
Corn usually be- ^"s^^^^" 
comes infested only after being husked, the moths flying to it and 
laying eggs on it. 

In control, grain should be threshed as soon as harvested. It should 
be stored in tight bins, watched carefully, and if it heats, indicating 
the presence of the pest, should be fumigated at once with carbon 

bisulphide. Corn husked late and 
placed in open cribs out doors 
seldom becomes infested. 



Fig. 565. — Larvae of 
the Angoumois 
Grain-moth. En- 
larged to twice nat- weather 
ural size. Original 





The European Grain-moth {Tinea 
granella Linn.) 

A tiny moth, with brown and 

white spotted wings, lays its eggs 

Fig. 567.— The European Grain- on developing grains in the field, its 

moth. Enlarged and natural size, minute grubs feeding within the 

Ongma . kernels in similar fashion to the 

Angoumois grain moth. It continues to breed in stored grains, 

just as does the other insect named, but its work may readily be 



360 PESTS OF THE HOUSEHOLD AND STORED PRODUCTS 

distinguished from the fact that there is always more or less webbing 
over the grain. Remedies consist in prompt threshing, storing in 

tight bins, and fumigation with car- 
bon bisulphide as soon as the presence 
of the pest is discovered. 




The Mediterranean Flour Moth 

{Ephestia kuehniella Zell.) 

This imported pest now ranks as 
one of the most destructive and 
troublesome of the insects infesting 
stored flour, bran, buckwheat, crack- 
ers, and cereal foods. It is the im- 
mature stage of a dull gray moth, expanding about one inch. The 
full grown larva is a half inch long, white, ornamented with fine 



Fig. 568. — Empty pupal skin of 
the European Grain-moth. En- 
larged and natural size. Orig- 
inal. 




Fig. 569. — Work of the Mediterranean Flour Moth. Original. 



black dots, and sparsely covered with hairs. It feeds within a silk 
tube, and spins quantities of silk wherever it goes, especially when 



FLOUR MOTHS 



361 



traveling about before pupation, with the result that the material in 
which it is at work is matted together and rendered valueless. In 
most situations, breeding goes on continuously. 

Remedies consist of fumigation 
with hydrocyanic acid gas. Treat- 




FiG. 570. — Larva of the Mediterra- 
nean Flour Moth. Slightly enlarged. 
Original. 




Fig. 571. — The Mediterranean 
Flour Moth. Slightly enlarged. 
Original. 



ment by heat is now gaining in favor, and promises to be a valuable 
method. This treatment is described under the following insect. 



The Indian-meal Moth (Plodia interpunctella Hbn.) 

Stored grains and flours of many kinds frequently become infested 
with the larvae of this tiny moth, which travel here and there through 
the grain or meal, eating as they go, and always spinning quantities 
of web with which will be found mixed the castings of the worms. 
The larva is about a half inch long, 
whitish or pale pink or greenish. 

In heated warehouses breeding may 
go on throughout the year. The adult 
is a small moth, expanding one half to 
three fourths of an inch, the fore wings 
reddish brown in their outer parts, the 
hind wings gray. 

In elevators or warehouses that are 
heated by steam the pest may be treated successfully by heat. If 
the temperature throughout the building can be raised to 120 degrees 
Fahrenheit, and maintained at that point for 6 hours, practically all 




Fig. 572. — The Indian-meal 
Moth. Larva. Slightly en- 
larged. Original. 



362 FUSTS OF THE HOUSEHOLD AND STORED PRODUCTS 




Fig. 573.— Adult of the Indian-meal Moth. 

Original. 



Enlarged and natural size. 



of the insects will be killed. Some additional piping may be necessary 
in order to accomplish this, but usually the cost is justified by the 
results, and the improvement, once made, is permanent. 

The pest may be killed by 
fumigation with carbon bi- 
sulphide or hydrocyanic acid 
gas. 




The Meal Snout-moth {Pyralis 
farinalis Linn.) 

The habits of this species 
resemble those of the Indian- 
meal moth. The larvse work in 
grains or grain products, such 
as flour, bran, or meal, and spin 
long tubes of silk, ruining more than they consume. There are three 
or four generations annually under favorable conditions. 
Treatment is the same as for the preceding species. 



Fig. 574. — Larvae and pupa of the Meal 
Snout-moth. Shghtly enlarged. Orig- 
inal, 



BEETLES AND WEEVILS 



363 





Fig. 



575. — The Meal Snout-moth. 
SHghtly enlarged. Original. 



Fig. 576. — The Granary Wee- 
vil. Enlarged and natural size. 
Original. 




Fig. 577. — Work of the Rice Weevil. Original. 





Fig. 578. — The Rice Weevil. 
Enlarged and natural size. 
Original. 



Fig. 579. — The Confused Flour 
Beetle. Enlarged and natural 
size. Original. 



364 PESTS OF THE HOUSEHOLD AND STORED PRODUCTS 



Beetles and Weevils in Stored Products 




Fig. 580. — The Saw-Toothed 
Grain Beetle. Enlarged and 
natural size. Original. 



Stored grain and other stored products are subject to infestation 
by many species of small beetles. In most cases the greater part of the 
injury is due to the feeding of " grubs," which are the immature stages 

of the pest concerned, but since the 
grubs often work concealed, while the 
adults are active and visible, the latter 
are the stages commonly noted. Some 
of the species most likely to "be observed 
are the following: 

The Granary Weevil (Calandra gra- 
naria Linn.). A brown snout-beetle, one 
seventh of an inch long. Infests stored 
grains, especially wheat, corn, and bar- 
ley. The wings are not functional, and the insect cannot fly. 

The Rice Weevil {Calandra oryza Linn.). A dark brown snout-beetle 
with two obscure, slightly lighter markings on each wing cover. 

Attacks stored grains ; also such 

manufactured products as crackers, 
flour, and the like. The adult can 

fly. 

The Confused Flour Beetle (Tri- 
bolium conjusum Duv.). A flat, brown 
beetle, one sixth of an inch long. 
A destructive pest of flour, cereal 
foods, and grains. 

The Rust-red Flour Beetle {Tri- 
holium navale Fab . ) . Closely resembles 
the preceding species. The same feeding habits. 

The Saw-toothed Grain Beetle {Silvanus surinamensis Linn.). A 
slender, dark brown beetle, its thorax edged with short teeth. Found 
in all kinds of foodstuffs. 

The Cadelle ( Tenebroides mauritanicus Linn.) . A black, oblong beetle, 
one third of an inch in length. The larva whitish, fleshy, tapering 




Fig. 581. — The Cadelle. 
larged and natural size, 
inal. 



En- 
Orig- 



WEEVILS 



365 



somewhat toward each end, three fourths of an inch long. Feeds on 
the germ of grains. Adults and larvae also predaceous. 

For all of these pests the surest treatment is fumigation with carbon 
bisulphide or carbon tetrachloride. They may be killed, also, by heat- 
ing the material in which they are at work to a temperature of 125 to 
140 degrees for three or four hours. 

When foodstuffs in houses are infested, a thorough cleaning out of 
the storage places is necessary, together with proper treatment of the 
materials affected. In addition all cracks and crevices should be 
sprayed with gasoline, taking proper precautions to guard against 
fire. 

The Bean Weevil {Acanthoscelides (Bruchus) obtectus Say) 

Dried beans that have been gathered and stored for winter use are 
injured or destroyed by this insect. Many beans will be found showing 




Fig. 582. — Work of the Bean Weevil. Original. 



round holes where the adult weevils have emerged, others will have 
grubs still at work inside, and in the box or bin will be found numerous 



366 PESTS OF THE HOUSEHOLD AND STORED PRODUCTS 

small, mottled, brownish beetles, about one eighth of an inch long, 
their wing covers a little shorter than their bodies. 

Infestation may have been carried over from old beans left in the box 
from last season's crop, for the insect continues to breed through the 
year in stored beans. Or the eggs may have been laid in the beans 
while still on the vines in the field, the beetles being abroad on the wing 
in late summer. 

Fumigation with carbon bisulphide or carbon tetrachloride is the 
best treatment, and should be applied as soon as beans are gathered. 
Infested beans should not be planted for seed. 





Fig. 583. — The Bean Weevil. 
Adult, enlarged and natural 
size. Original. 



Fig. 584. — The Co\\T)ea 
Weevil. Enlarged and 
natural size. Original. 



The Cowpea Weevil {Pachymerus (Bruchus) chinensis L.) 

Stored beans, peas, and cowpeas are attacked by this weevil. In 
most particulars its life round is the same as that of the bean weevil. 
It continues to breed in the stored seed. 

Treatment consists in fumigation with carbon bisulphide or carbon 
tetrachloride. 



The Four-spotted Bean Weevil (Pachymerus (Bruchus) quadrimacu- 

latus Fab.) 

Still another weevil working in dried beans and peas is the four- 
spotted bean weevil. While the adult differs somewhat from the pre- 



WEEVILS 



367 




Fig. 585. — Work of the Four-spotted Bean Weevil. Original. 



ceding in shape and markings, its habits and life history are practically 
the same. It lays eggs in the field, but also continues to breed in the 
dried, stored product. 

The treatment is 
fumigation with carbon 
bisulphide or carbon 
tetrachloride. 




Fig. 586. — The Four- 
spotted Bean Weevil. 
Enlarged and natural 
size. Original. 




Fig. 587. — Work of the Pea Weevil. Original. 



368 PESTS OF THE HOUSEHOLD AND STORED PRODUCTS 



The Pea Weevil {Lana (Bruchus) pisorum L.) 

The adult pea weevil is similar in appearance to the bean weevil, 
but is a little larger and has a shorter thorax. The grubs live in 
peas, hatching from eggs laid on the pods early in the season by the 

adults, while the peas are still in 
the field. Unlike the bean weevil 
this pest never goes on breeding in 
the dried, stored product. 

The grubs are in the peas when 
they are gathered. In the South 
the adults emerge before the next 
planting time, but in the North the 
insect is still in the seed when it is 
planted. 

Emergence of the adults may be 

accelerated by keeping the peas in 

a warm place. Seed may be held 

over for a season. The best treatment, however, is fumigation with 

carbon bisulphide or carbon tetrachloride. 




Fig. 588. — The Pea Weevil. En^ 
larged and natural size. Original. 



Weevils in Nuts 

The white, thick grubs often found in chestnuts, pecans, and hickory 
nuts are familiar to all. Their exit holes also, where the mature grub 
has cut its way out through the shell, are commonly recognized. 

The adults of these grubs are beetles, one fourth to one third inch 
long, yellowish in general color with darker markings, and charac- 
terized by an extremely long snout, slender as a pin. Biting jaws are 
located at the end of the snout. 

There are three species concerned : the Larger Chestnut Weevil 
(Balaninus proboscideus Fab.) ; the Chestnut Weevil (Balaninus 
rectus Say) ; and the Pecan, or Hickory Nut Weevil (Balaninus 
caryce Horn.). All are similar in appearance, and their habits are 
much the same. 

Direct means of control of these pests in the field is not possible. 



NUT-WEE VILS — MEAL WORM 



369 



The adults come out from the ground in spring, and continue emerging 
tliroughout the summer. When the nuts are large enough, they punc- 
ture them through the husk or 
burr with tlieir long snouts, and 
lay their eggs within. The 
grubs mature usually soon after 
the nuts fall, eat their way 
out, and winter in the soil. 

Nuts should be gathered 
regularly and at frequent in- 
tervals. In the case of chest- 
nuts it is wise to fumigate with 

carbon bisulpliide immediately after gathering. The gas will pene- 
trate the nuts and kill the weevils, some of which will be so small that 
they have not yet damaged the kernel appreciably. 




Fig. 589. 



-Work of the Hickory Nut 
Weevil. Original. 



The Yellow Mealworm (Tenebrio molitor Linn.) 

Corn meal or similar material is often infested with yellowish or 
brownish worms, an inch long when full grown, their backs shining and 
'' hard-shelled," looking somewhat like wireworms. The adult is a 




Fig. 590. — The Yellow Mealworm. 
Slightly enlarged. Original. 




Fig. 591. — Adult of the 
Yellow Mealworm. 

Slightly enlarged. Orig- 
inal. 



dark, oblong beetle, which flies at night, and lays eggs wherever it 
can find suitable material. Treatment consists in a thorough cleaning 
up of waste meal, combined with fumigation or heating of infested 
lots. There is only one generation annually. 
2b 



370 PESTS OF THE HOUSEHOLD AND STORED PRODUCTS 



The Cigarette Beetle (Lasioderma serricorne Fab.) 

Stored tobacco, and various other stored products, often become 
infested with this pest. The larv® is a white, fleshy, tiny grub. The 
adult is one sixteenth of an inch long, brownish, its head bent back 

under its thorax. The 
larvae feed here and there 
through their food sub- 
stance, and the beetles 
make small round holes in 









^^>^;:w:m^'' 






•;-i..v,''-- ■ ~^' 




^K^ ' S^g^-^^H 




^^srsJiii^^^M 


1 



Fig. 



592. — Work and larva of the Cigarette 
Beetle. Enlarged. Original. 



Fig. 593. — The Cigarette 
Beetle. Adult, enlarged and 
natural size. Original. 



emerging. There are several generations annually under suitable 
conditions. Warehouses that have become infested should be thor- 
oughly cleaned up, and then fumigated with carbon bisulphide or 
hydrocyanic acid gas. 



CHAPTER XXV 
Insect Pests of Domestic Animals 

Many different species of insects live as parasites on or in domestic 
animals. Some of these have totally different habits and character- 
istics ; and thus the treatment for one will not always answer for 
another. But between many species only minor differences exist. 
The commoner and more typical forms will be given here. 



The Horse Bot-fly {Gastrophilus equi Fab.) 

In its larval stage this insect is an internal parasite within the 
stomach of the horse, where it lives attached to the walls. It injures 
the animal by interfering 
with digestion and by the 
irritation set up by its pres- 
ence. 

The adult fly frequents 
horses throughout midsum- 





FiG. 594. — Larvae of the Horse 
Bot-fly. Slightly enlarged. 
Original. 



Fig. 595.— Eggs of the Horse Bot-fly, 
attached to hairs. Enlarged and nat- 
ural size. Original. 

371 



372 



PESTS OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS 



mer, and fastens its eggs to the hairs of the animal's shoulders or 
fore legs. The eggs are yellowish in color and plainly visible. They 

are hatched by the action of the ani- 
mal's tongue in licking itself, and are 
carried by the tongue to the mouth, 
whence they reach the stomach. When 
full grown, the larvse pass out and 
pupate in the soil. 

Examine the stock once every two 
weeks during summer, and if eggs are 
found, shave them off with a sharp knife 
or moisten them with kerosene, or with 

Fig. 596. The Horse Bot-fly. ^ solution of carbolic acid 1 part, water 

Slightly enlarged. Original. 30 parts. 




The Sheep Bot-fly {(Estrus ovis Linn.) 

The maggots of this species develop in the upper nasal passages of 
sheep, sometimes penetrating the brain. Living young are deposited 
in the nostrils by the adult flies in 
June and July. The mature mag- 
gots work their way out through 
the nostrils after ten months and 
pupate in the ground. 

Finely powdered lime is used to 
induce sneezing, so as to dislodge 
the maggots. The same result is 
secured by dipping a feather in tur- 
pentine and running it up the nos- 
trils. A mixture of tar and grease 
or other repellent may be smeared on the nose to keep off the adult 
flies, but is not entirely effectual. 




Fig. 597. —Larva of the Sheep Bot- 
fly. Slightly enlarged. Original. 



The Ox Warble {Hypoderma lineata Villers) 
The ox warble is a species of bot-fly, which spends the latter part 
of its larval stage as a fleshy, footless grub beneath the skin of the back. 



INTERNAL PARASITES 



373 




A hole is made through the skm by which the grub gets air. These 
holes are a source of great loss in dressed hides, and the presence of the 
grub causes irritation and often loss of weight or of milk flow in the 
infested animal. 

The adult is about the size and shape of a honey-bee, but has only 
two wings instead of four. The sides of its head and thorax are marked 
with white, and on the upper surface of the thorax are four shining 
raised lines. The base of the abdomen is whitish. 

Eggs are laid in early summer attached to hairs near the heels of the 
animal. The egg opens as the animal licks its heels, and the young 
grub is carried by the tongue to the 
mouth. It at once penetrates the 
walls of the throat and for several 
months is in the connective tissue 
along the back of the neck and else- 
where. Finally it settles under the 
skin of the back, and makes its breath- 
ing hole tln-ough the hide. When 
mature, it drops to the ground, where 
it remains until the next spring. 

The presence of the grub results in damage to the beef, giving it a 
slimy appearance. In addition the hide is injured. 

Flies will not lay eggs on animals that are standing in water. In 
small herds strong-smelling oils may be smeared on the lower part 
of the legs, and w411 act as deterrents. A mixture sometimes recom- 
mended consists of sulphur, 4 ounces ; spirits of tar, 1 gill ; train oil 
(whale oil), 1 quart. As a rule the adult flies do not enter stables 
or attack animals under shelter. 

The grubs under the skin are best removed by pressing each side 
of the hole until the end of the grub protrudes, and drawing it out with 
tweezers. 

The best time to do this is in February or March. The grubs can 
be located by passing the hand along the back. If the grubs are thus 
removed, the flesh beneath will heal and the hole will close within a 
short time. 



Fig. 



598. — Larva of the 
Warble. Original. 



Ox 



374 



PESTS OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS 




Fig. 599. — The Screw-worm Fly. En- 
larged and natural size. Original. 



The Screw-worm {Chrysomyia macellaria Fab.) 
Exposed wounds or even the bites of ticks form the breeding ground 

of the whitish maggots of this species. Eggs are laid in large numbers 

in such places by the adult fly, 
and the young burrow in the 
surrounding tissues, later enter- 
ing the ground to transform. 
There may be several genera- 
tions annually. 

Prompt treatment of chance 
wounds, and dipping to kill or 
prevent ticks, are the best 
measures to adopt. In the 
treatment of wounds a solution 

of carbolic acid, 1 part, water, 30 parts, is excellent, followed by a 

dressing of pine tar. 

Sucking Lice on Domestic Animals 

The larger animals, including cattle, horses, swine, and others, 
are often infested with sucking lice, which frequently cause great 
irritation. Several species are common. 

The Short-nosed Ox Louse {Hwmato- 
pinus eurysternus Nitzsch) is slaty in 
color, one eighth to one fifth of an inch 
long and about half as broad. Usually it 
is most troublesome on the neck and 
shoulders. 

The Long-nosed Ox Louse {Hcematopinus 
vituli Linn.) is slender, one eighth of an 
inch long. Its head is distinctly elongated. 

The Hog Louse {Hcematopinus urius 

Nitzsch) is gray, one fourth of an inch 

long, the body broadly elUptical, the 

, j T^ 11 • / . T • .MX Fig. 600. — The Short-nosed 

head narrow. Badly mfested pigs fail to ^^ ^ouse. Enlarged and 

make proper gains in weight. natural size. Original. 




LICE 



TICKS 



MITES 



375 



For all of these pests, treatment consists in the application of suit- 
able contact insecticides, which may be kerosene emulsion, tobacco 
extract, or various ointments. Kerosene emulsion 
should be prepared by diluting the stock emulsion 
with 8 or 10 parts of water. '' Black leaf 40," or 
'' nicotine sulphate," is diluted at the rate of 1 part 
to 800 of water. 

Biting Lice on Domestic Animals 

Various species of flat-bodied, broad-headed, 
biting lice infest the larger animals. They feed 
on the rough parts of the skin and on the hairs, 
and cause considerable irritation, though they do 
not suck the blood. Commonly they are spoken 
of as the " little red lice," as distinguished from 
the bluish sucking lice. All are members of the 
genus Trichodedes. T. scalaris Nitz. infests cattle ; 
Piag. is common on the horse; T. sphcerocephalus Nitz. is found on 
the sheep. 

Washes of kerosene emulsion or tobacco extract are effective, as 
described for sucking lice. 




Fig. 601. — The 
Long-nosed Ox 
Louse. Enlarged 
and natural size. 
Original. 

T. parumpilosus 



The Cattle-tick {Margaropus annulatus Say) 

Throughout many of the Southern states cattle are subject to a 

fever which is transmitted by a tick. Enormous losses are caused 

each year by the work of this pest. The tick 

which serves as a carrier for this disease is a 

dark-bodied, eight-legged creature, and goes 

through a peculiar life round. The adult 

engorged female drops from the cattle to the 

ground and lays its eggs. These hatch into 

"seed ticks," which then crawl up on the 

nearest herbage and wait for cattle to come 
Fig. 602. — The Cattle- , r^ \. ^ • i i, ^ ^v. 

tick. Slightly enlarged, ^^ong. Once back on an animal host, they 

Original. go through their life round to adult. 




376 PESTS OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS 

Control is based on keeping cattle out of tick-infested pastures long 
enough to starve out all the seed ticks. The latter do not go in search 
of a host, but wait for it to come. Luckily tliis scheme works in well 
with various desirable crop rotations. 

In the case of range animals, dipping or spraying to kill the ticks 
on the animal is resorted to. 

The Sheep Tick {Melophagus ovinus Linn.) 

Degenerate, reddish or brownish, flattened insects, one fourth of an 

inch long or less, suck the blood of sheep and lambs. They are especially 

injurious to the latter. The pest is most 

numerous in the spring months. The 

entire life round is spent on the sheep. 

While this species belongs in the order 

of flies, the adults are entirely wingless. 

Sheep should be dipped after shearing. 

Various substances are on the market for 

this purpose. Or, one of the commercial 

tobacco extracts may be used, following 
Fig. 603.— The Sheep Tick. ,,.,,. . , , , ' , . 

Enlarged and natural size, ^he mstructions prmted on the contamer 

Original. in which the material is sold. 

The Sheep Scab-mite {Psoroptes communis Furst, var. ovis) 

Small, sucking mites breed in large numbers under scales or crusts 
formed on the skin of sheep. There is violent itching, and the 
wool looks rough and ragged, often sticking together in places, 
or falling entirely out. Attack is usually confined to the neck, back, 
and rump, the under parts being more or less free of the mites. 
The mites are exceedingly small, and swarm around the edges of the 
scabs. 

Dipping of infested animals is the only thorough remedy. The 
same materials are used as in dipping for the sheep tick, the one dip 
serving to kill both insects. 




LICE AND MITES ON POULTRY 



377 



Biting Lice on Poultry 

Several different species of biting lice affect poultry, including the 
genera Menopon, Lipeurus, and others. They vary in particular 
characteristics, but all are alike in the fact that they do not suck the 
blood of their host, but cause injury 
by eating the surface of the skin and 
the finer parts of the feathers, and 
by the tiny pricks of their sharp 
claws as they move about over their 
host. On young chicks their irrita- 
tion may readily prove fatal. 

The eggs or " nits " are laid on 
the feathers, and in warm weather 
hatch in ten days. Both young and 
adults are apt to be especially active 
at night, crawling over the perches 
and moving from one fowl to 
another. 

Treatment must include both the poultry house and the fowls in 
order to be entirely effective. The latter may be dusted with a mix- 
ture of 10 pounds of sulphur to ^ bushel of air-slaked lime. The 
same material may be used in the house, taking care to get it into all 
cracks, and mixing it with the dust bath. A more effective measure 
for the house is spraying with lime-sulphur solution or 10 per cent 
kerosene emulsion. Treatment of the fowls should be repeated at 
the end of a week or ten days. 




Fig. 604. — A Chicken Louse, Li- 
peurus variabilis. Enlarged and 
natural size. Original. 



The Chicken Mite {Dermanyssus gallince Redi.) 

Several species of mites attack poultry, but the commonest is the 
one here described. It is a minute, eight-legged creature, one twentieth 
of an inch long, normally grayish in color but appearing red when filled 
with blood. It has sucking mouth parts. 

Eggs are laid in droppings or in places where dirt has accumulated, 
and the young feed at first on such substances. Later they crawl on 



378 PESTS OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS 

hens or young chicks, but they do not remain on them all the time, 
usually feeding only at night or when a hen is on a nest, and hiding in 
cracks in the henhouse during daytime. Often they will be found 
during the day clustered in little colonies on the under side of perches, 
especially in crevices in the wood. 

In control the first measure is a thorough cleaning up of the poultry 
house. Then spray the interior with lime-sulphur solution or with 
20 per cent kerosene emulsion. The spraying 
treatment should be repeated after a few days. 




% 



The Itch Mite of Poultry (Cnemidocoptes mutans 
Robin.) 

This pest is related to the common chicken mite, 

but attacks rather the legs, the comb, or the neck, 

^^i • , '~^r- ^ where it burrows under the skin, causing a scaly 
Chicken Mite. ' ^^ *^ 

Enlarged and Crust to form. 

natural size. Dry, sunny quarters should be provided for 

Original. f^^^jg attacked. The legs or other affected parts 

should be washed in warm soap and water, followed by the appli- 
cation of a suitable ointment, which should be one containing 
sulphur. 

Another species, Cnemidocoptes gallince Railliet, causes such irrita- 
tion that the fowls pull out their feathers ; or the feathers break off. 
A whitish, powdery substance will be found in the base of the quills, 
and in this the lice live. 

Give the same treatment as for the other itch mite, just described. 

The Cuban Hen Flea (Argopsylla gallinacea West.) 

In the Southern states this species of flea seriously infests fowls 
and sometimes is a nuisance to man. On fowls, the fleas collect in 
large numbers on spots bare of feathers, such as the comb or wattles, 
bury their sucking mouth parts in the flesh, and stick so tight that 
they can hardly be dislodged. The young develop in waste matter 
in the nest or on the ground. 

The remedies are suitable ointments or washes. 



BITING FLIES 



379 



Horseflies, or " Gadflies" {Tabanidce) 
Horses and cattle, and often other animals as well, are persecuted 
by various species of large, two-winged flies, which alight on the head, 
neck, back, or flanks, and torment the animals by piercing the skin and 
sucking the blood. The pests are capable of causing noticeable loss of 
flesh, not to mention the unpleasant effects on the animal's disposition. 
These flies have no connection with the bots or grubs found in the 
stomach of the horse or under the skin of the back of cattle. Their 
sole injury is that caused by their bites. Their young live in pools 
or running streams, and their eggs are laid on leaves or twigs over- 
hanging the water. 

Various oils may be applied to the animals, to drive away the flies. 
One method is to spray them with kerosene emulsion, diluting the 
stock with 10 parts of water. 

The Horn-fly (Ujperosia irritans Linn., formerly Hcematobia serrata) 
The horn-fly is a biting insect about the size of a common house fly 

but more slender, and injures cattle by swarming on them in large 

numbers, biting and annoying 

them severely. The fly gets its 

name from its habit of resting 

in clusters around the base of 

the horns, where it cannot be 

dislodged by its host. It does 

not feed at this point particu- 
larly, but rather on the flanks, 

belly, and wherever opportunity 

offers. 

There are several generations 

annually. The larva is a small maggot, and lives in moist, fresh dung. 
If all dung is collected frequently and spread out to dry, the maggots 

will be killed. Cattle may be protected by repellents, among which 

fish oil or train oil is the best. Kerosene emulsion, apphed with a 

spray pump, will kill such flies as it hits, and will give protection for 

two or tliree days. 




Fig. 606. — The Horn-fly. Enlarged and 
natural size. Original. 



REFERENCES 

For general accounts of the writings in Economic Entomology, and 
for lists of publications, see Bulletins 40 and 81 of the Bureau of Ento- 
mology, United States Department of Agriculture. 

Detailed accounts of the insects considered in this book will be found 
in the following bulletins and reports. 

Abbreviations 

Bur. Ent.=Bureau of Entomology, United States Department of 
Agriculture. 

Exp. Sta. = The various State Experiment Stations, 

Rpt. State Ent.= Annual Reports of the various State Entomologists. 

Farmers' Bull. = Farmers' Bulletin, United States Department of 
Agriculture. 

Acanthoscelides obtectus, Yearbook, U.S.D.A., 1898, page 239. 
Acrididoe, 23 Rpt. 111. State Ent., page 136. 
Acronycta oblinita, 4th Rpt. Minn. State Ent., pages 155-157. 
Mgeria rutilans, Bur. Ent. Bull. 23. 

Mgeria tipuliformis, 4th Rpt. Minn. State Ent., pages 60-64. 
Agrilus ruficollis, N. J. Exp. Sta. Special Bull. N. 
Agriotes mancus, Bur. Ent. Bull. 27. 
Agromyza simplex, Bur. Ent. Bull. 66-1. 
Alabama argillacea, Bur. Ent. Circ. 153. 
Aleurodes citri, Bur. Ent. Bull. 92. 
Aleurodes vapor ariorum, Bur. Ent. Bull. 92. 
Allorhina nitida, 23d Rpt. 111. State Ent., page 101. 
Alsophila pometaria, Rpt. Conn. State Ent., 1908, page 777. 
Alypia octomaculata, 4th Rpt. Minn. State Ent., pages 66-67. 
Ampeloglypter ater, W. Va. Exp. Sta. Bull. 119. 
Ampeloglypter sesostris, W. Va. Exp. Sta. Bull. 119. 
Ampelophaga myron, 4th Rpt. Minn. State Ent., pages 42-45. 
Anaphothrips striata, Maine Exp. Sta. Bull. 83. 
Anarsia lineatella, Colo. Exp. Sta. Bull. 169. 

381 



382 REFERENCES 

Anasa tristis, Bur. Ent. Cire. 39. 

Ancylis comptana, N. J. Exp. Sta. Bull. 225. 

Ancylis nubeculana, N. Y. State Museum Bull. 124. 

Anomala spp., 10th Rpt. N. Y. State Ent., page 411. 

Anthonomus grandis, Farmers' Bull. 344. 

Anthonomus quadrigihhus, 111. Exp. Sta. Bull. 98. 

A7ithonomus scutellaris, Colo. Exp. Sta. Bull. 47. 

Anthonomus signatus, N. J. Exp. Sta. Bull. 225. 

Anthrenus scrophularioB, N. Y. State Museum Bull. 136. 

Aphis bakeri, Colo. Exp. Sta. Bull. 133. 

Aphis brassicce, N. Y. Cornell Exp. Sta. Bull. 300. 

Aphis forbesi, N. J. Exp. Sta. Bull. 225. 

Aphis gossypii, Bur. Ent. Cire. 80. 

Aphis maidis, Bur. Ent. Tech. Ser. Bull. 12- VIII. 

Aphis maidi-radicis, Bur. Ent. Bull. 85- VI. 

Aphis persicae-niger, Colo. Exp. Sta. Bull. 133. 

Aphis pomi, Colo. Exp. Sta. Bull. 133. 

Aphis rumicis, Iowa Exp. Sta. Bull. 23. 

Aphis setaricB, Okla. Exp. Sta. Bull. 88. 

Aphis sorbi, Rpt. Conn. State Ent., 1909, page 343. 

Archips argyrospila, N. Y. Cornell Exp. Sta. Bull. 311. 

Archips rosaceana, N. Y. Cornell Exp. Sta. Bull. 311. 

Aspidiotus ancylus, Mo. Fruit Sta. Bull. 18. 

Aspidiotus forbesi, Mo. Fruit Sta. Bull. 18. 

Aspidiotus ostreceformis, Bur. Ent., Bull. 20. 

Aspidiotus perniciosus, Bur. Ent. Bull. 62. 

Aulacaspis rosoe, N. J. Exp. Sta. Bull. 159. 

Autographa brassicce, Bur. Ent. Bull. 33. 

Balaninus spp., W. Va. Exp. Sta. Bull. 128. 

Bembecia marginata, Wash. Exp. Sta. Bull. 63. 

Blattidce, Bur. Ent. Cire. 51. 

BHssus leucopterus, 111. Exp. Sta. Bull. 95, Bur. Ent. Bull. 69. 

Brucophagus funebris, 111. Exp. Sta. Bull. 134. 

Bryobia pratensis, Colo. Exp. Sta. Bull. 152. 

Bucculatrix pomifoliella, N. Y. Cornell Exp. Sta. Bull. 214. 

Byturus unicolor, Ohio Exp. Sta. Bull. 202. 

Calandra granaria. Farmers' Bull. 45. 

Calandra oryza, N. C. Exp. Sta. Bull. 203. 

Caliroa amygdalina, Bur. Ent. Bull. 97-V. 

Caliroa cerasi, Iowa Exp. Sta. Bull. 130. 

Canarsia hammondi, 4th Rpt. Minn. State Ent., page 217. 

Carpocapsa pomonella. Bur. Ent. Bull. 41. 



REFERENCES 383 

Cassida spp., N. J. Exp. Sta. Bull. 229. 

Cephus occidentalis, Bur. Ent. Circ. 117. ■> 

Ceratoma trifurcata, U.S.D.A. Yearbook, 1898, pages 253-255. 

Ceresa bubalus, N. Y. Geneva Exp. Sta. Tech. Bull. 17. 

Ceutorhynchus rapce, Bur. Ent. Bull. 23. 

Chcetocnema confinis, N. J. Exp. Sta. Bull. 229. 

Chalcodermus ceneus, Bur. Ent. Bull. 85-VIII. 

Chionaspis furfura, Bur. Ent. Circ. 121. 

Chloridea virescens, Farmers' Bull. 120. 

Chrysohothris femorata, Bur. Ent. Circ. 32. 

Chrysomyia macellaria, Bur. Ent. Bull. 5. 

Cimex lectularius, Bur. Ent. Circ. 47. 

Citigilia catenaria, 4th Rpt. Minn. State Ent., pages 186-187. 

Cladius pectinicornis, Bur. Ent. Circ. 105. 

Cleora pampinaria, Bur. Ent. Bull. 66-III. 

Clivina impressifrons, Bur. Ent. Bull. 85-11. 

Cnemidocoptes spp., Bur. Ent. Circ. 92. 

Colaspis brunnea, 23d Rpt. 111. State Ent., page 104. 

Coleophora fletcherella, Bur. Ent. Bull. 80-11. 

Coleophora tnalivorella, N. Y. Cornell Exp. Sta. Bull. 124. 

Conotrachelus cratcegi, N. Y. Cornell Exp. Sta. Bull. 148. 

Conotrachelus nenuphar, Bur. Ent. Bull. 103. 

Contarinia johnsoni, N. Y. Geneva Exp. Sta. Bull. 331. 

Contarinia pyrivora, N. J. Exp. Sta. Bull. 99. 

Contarinia sorghicola, Bur. Ent. Bull. 85-IV. 

Coptocycla spp., N. J. Exp. Sta. Bull. 229. 

Coptodisca splendoriferella, 4th Rpt. Minn. State Ent., pages 263-265. 

Crajnbus hortuellus, Mass. Exp. Sta. Bull. 115. 

Crambus spp., 111. Exp. Sta. Bull. 95. 

Craponius incequalis, W. Va. Exp. Sta. Bull. 100. 

Crioceris asparagi, Bur. Ent. Circ. 102. 

Crioceris duodecimpundata, Bur. Ent. Circ. 102. 

Ctenocephalus canis, Bur. Ent. Circ. 108. 

Culicidce, Bur. Ent. Bull 88. 

Cydia nigricana, Bur. Ent. Bull. 33. 

Cylas formicarius, Tex. Exp. Sta. Bull. 93. 

Cymatophora ribearia, 4th Rpt. Minn. State Ent., pages 184-186. 

Dasyneura leguminicola. 111. Exp. Sta. Bull. 134. 

Datana ministra, N. H. Exp. Sta. Bull. 139. 

Dermanyssus gallinoe, Bur. Ent. Circ. 92. 

Desmia funeralis, Farmers' Bull. 70. 

Diabrotica duodecimpunctata, 111. Exp. Sta. Bull. 44. 



384 REFERENCES 

Diahrotica longicornis, 111. Exp. Sta. Bull. 44. 

Diabrotica vittata, 20tli Rpt. N. H. Exp. Sta. 

Diacrisia virginica, Bur. Ent. Bull. 82-V. 

Diaphania hyalinata, N. C. Exp. Sta. Bull. 214. 

Diaphania nitidalis, N. C. Exp. Sta. Bull. 214. 

Diastrophus turgidus, Ohio Exp. Sta. Bull. 45. 

Diatrcea saccharalis, Bur. Ent. Circ. 116. 

Diatrcea zeacolella, Bur. Ent. Circ. 139. 

Dichomeris ligulellus, N. Y. Cornell, Exp. Sta. Bull. 187. 

Dicyphus minimus, Fla. Exp. Sta. Bull. 48. 

Disonycha spp., 21st Rpt. 111. State Ent., page 115-117. 

Dolerus spp., Insect Life, Vol. IV, page 169. 

Drasteria erechtea, Mich. Exp. Sta. Bull. 116. 

Dysdercus suturellus, Bur. Ent. Circ. 149. 

Eccoptogaster rugulosus, N. Y. Geneva Exp. Sta. Bull. 180. 

Elaphidion villosum, 111. Exp. Sta. Bull. 151. 

Elasmopalpus lignosellus, Bur. Ent. Bull. 23. 

ElateridcB, 111. Exp. Sta. Bull. 44. 

Emphytus cinctus, Bur. Ent. Circ. 105. 

Empoasca mali, Iowa Exp. Sta. Bull. 111. 

Empria maculata, Mo. Exp. Sta. Bull. 54. 

Endelomyia rosce, Bur. Ent. Circ. 105. 

Ennomos subsignarius, N. Y. Cornell Exp. Sta. Bull. 286. 

Ephestia kuehniella. Bur. Ent. Circ. 112. 

Epiccerus imbricatus, Bur. Ent. Bull. 43. 

Epilachna borealis, Bur. Ent. Bull. 19. 

Epilachna corrupta, Yearbook, U. S. D. A., 1898, p. 251. 

Epitrix cucumeris, Bur. Ent. Bull. 19. 

Epitrix parvula, Bur. Ent. Circ. 123. 

Epochra canadensis, Maine Exp. Sta. Bull. 35. 

Erannis tilaria, 4th Rpt. Minn. State Ent., pages 193-195. 

Eriophyes pyri, N. Y. Geneva Exp. Sta. Bull. 306. 

Estigm.ene acrcea. Bur. Ent. Bull. 43. 

Eudamus proteus, Fla. Exp. Sta. Bull. 45. 

Eulecanium nigrojasciatum, Md. Exp. Sta. Bull. 149. 

Euphoria inda. Bur. Ent. Bull. 19. 

Euproctis chrysorrhcea, N. H. Exp. Sta. Bull. 136. 

Eurymus eurytheme, Bur. Ent. Circ. 133. 

Eutettix tenella, Bur. Ent. Bull. 66-IV. 

Euthrips nicotiance. Bur. Ent. Bull. 65. 

Euthrips pyri, N. Y. Geneva Exp. Sta. Bull. 343. < 

Euthrips tritici, Fla. Exp. Sta. Bull. 46. 



REFERENCES 385 

Evergestis rimosalis, Bur. Ent. Bull. 33. 
Fidia viticida, N. Y. Geneva Exp. Sta. Bull. 331. 
Formicina, Bur. Ent. Circ. 34. 
Fungous Diseases, Bur. Ent. Bull. 107. 
Galerucella cavicollis, Bur. Ent. Bull. 19. 
Gastrophilus equi, Bur. Ent. Bull. 5. 
H cemotopinus eurystcrnus, Bur. Ent. Bull. 5. 
HoBinatopinus urius, Bur. Ent. Bull. 5. 
Hcemotopinus vituli, Bur. Ent. Bull. 5. 
Haltica chalybea, N. Y. Geneva Exp. Sta. Bull. 331. 
Haltica ignita, Bur. Ent. Bull. 23. 
Harrisina americana, Bur. Ent. Bull. 68- VIII. 
Heliothis ohsoleta, Farmers' Bull. 290. 
Heliothrips hcemorrhoidalis. Bur. Ent. Bull. 64-VI. 
Hellula undalis. Bur. Ent. Bull. 109-III. 
H enter ocampa leucostigma, N. Y. Geneva Exp. Sta. Bull. 312. 
Hemerocampa spp., 111. Exp. Sta. Bull. 151. 
Heterocordylus malinus, N. Y. Cornell Exp. Sta. Bull. 291. 
Household Insects, Bur. Ent. Bull. 4. 
Hyalopterus arundinis, Colo. Exp. Sta. Bull. 133. 
Hydroecia immanis, Bur. Ent. Bull. 7. 
Hylastinus ohscurus, 111. Exp. Sta. Bull. 134. 
Hypena humuli, Bur. Ent. Bull. 7. 
Hyphantria cunea, Del. Exp. Sta. Bull. 56. 
Hypoderma lineata, Bur. Ent. Circ. 25. 
Hypsopygia costalis, 111. Exp. Sta. Bull. 134. 
Insects and Disease, Bur. Ent. Bull. 78. 
Iridomyrmex Jiumilis, Cal. Exp. Sta. Bull. 207. 
Isia Isabella, 23d Rept. 111. State Ent., pages 72-75. 
Isosoma grande, Bur. Ent. Circ. 106. 
Isosoma hordei, Bur. Ent. Bull. 42. 
Isosoma tritici, Ohio Exp. Sta. Bull. 226. 

Ithycerus noveboracensis, 5th Rpt. Minn. State Ent., page 187. 
Itonida tritici, Farmers' Bull. 132. 
Janus integer, N. Y. Cornell, Exp. Sta. Bull. 126. 
Jassidce, 21st. Rpt. 111. State Ent., pages 62-79, Bur. Ent. Bull. 57. 
Lachnosterna spp.. 111. Exp. Sta. Bull. 116. 
Languria mozardi, 111. Exp. Sta. Bull. 134. 
Laphygma exigua, Bur. Ent. Bull. 33. 
Laphygma frugiperda, Bur. Ent. Bull. 29. 
Laria pisorum, Yearbook, U.S.D.A., 1898, pages 234r-239. 
Lasioderma serricorne, Fla. Exp. Sta. Bull. 48. 
2c 



386 REFERENCES 

Laspeyresia inter stinctana, 111. Exp. Sta. Bull. 134. 

Laspeyresia prunivora, Bur. Ent. Bull. 68-V. 

Lecanium corni. Bur. Ent. Bull. 80-VIII. 

Lema trilineata, 1st Rpt. Mo. State Ent., page 99. 

Lepidosaphes ulmi, Bur. Ent. Circ. 121. 

Lepisma saccharina, Bur. Ent. Circ. 49. 

Leptinotarsa decemlineata, Bur. Ent. Circ. 87. 

Leucania unipuncta, 111. Exp. Sta. Bull. 95. 

Ligyrus gibbosus, Bur. Ent. Bull. 33. 

Ligyrus rugiceps, Bur. Ent. Bull. 54. 

Lipeurus spp., Bur. Ent. Bull. 5. 

Lixus concavus, Bur. Ent. Bull. 23. 

Loxostege similalis, 23d Rpt. 111. State Ent., page 89. 

Loxostege sticticalis, Colo. Exp. Sta. Bull. 98. 

Lygidea mendax, N. Y. Cornell Exp. Sta. Bull. 291. 

Lygus pratensis, Mo. Exp. Sta. Bull. 47. 

Lyperosia irritans, Bur. Ent. Circ. 115. 

Macrodactylus subspinosus, N. Y. Geneva Exp. Sta. Bull. 331. 

Macrosiphum pisi, 111. Exp. Sta. Bull. 134. 

Macrosiphum solanifolii, Maine Exp. Sta. Bull. 147. 

Malacosoma americana, N. Y. Geneva Exp. Sta. Bull. 152. 

Malacosoma disstria, N. Y. Geneva Exp. Sta. Bull. 159. 

Mamestra legitima, Bur. Ent. Bull. 66-III. 

Mamestra picta, 14th Rpt. N. Y. State Ent., pages 201-207. 

Mar gar opus annulatus, Tenn. Exp. Sta. Bull. 81. 

Mayetiola destructor. Bur. Ent. Bull. 16. 

Melanotus communis, 18tli Rpt. 111. State Ent., pages 27-51. 

Meliana albilinea, Iowa Exp. Sta. Bull. 122. 

Melittia satyriniforrnis, Ga. Exp. Sta. Bull. 45. 

MeloidoB, Bur. Ent. Bull. 43. 

Melophagus ovinus, Bur. Ent. Bull. 5. 

Memythrus polistiformis, W. Va. Exp. Sta. Bull. 110. 

Menopon spp., Bur. Ent. Bull. 5. 

Meromyza americana, Bur. Ent. Bull. 42. 

Metallus rubi, Del. Exp. Sta. Bull. 87. 

Mineola indiginella, 4tli Rpt. Minn. State Ent., pages 211-213. 

Mineola vaccinii, Mass. Exp. Sta. Bull. 115. 

Monomorium spp., Bur. Ent. Circ. 34. 

Monophadnoides rubi, N. Y. Geneva Exp. Sta. Bull. 150. 

Monoptilota nubilella, Bur. Ent. Bull. 23. 

Monoxia puncticollis, 24tli Rpt. Colo. Exp. Sta., pages 108-111. 

Murgantia histrionica, Bur. Ent. Circ. 103. 



REFERENCES 387 

Musca domestica. Farmers' Bull. 459. 

Myzus cerasi, Colo. Exp. Sta. Bull. 133. 

Myzus persicoe, Colo. Exp. Sta. Bull. 133. 

Myzus ribis, N. Y. Geneva, Exp. Sta. Bull. 139. 

Noctuidce, 111. Exp. Sta. Bull. 95. 

Nysius angustatus, 23d Rpt. 111. State Ent., page 117. 

Oberea bimaculata, Ohio Exp. Sta. Bull. 96. 

(Ecanthus spp., 23d Rpt. 111. State Ent., page 215. 

(Estrus ovis, Bur. Ent. Bull. 5. 

Oncideres cingulatus, Okla. Exp. Sta. Bull. 91. 

Otiorhynchus ovatus, Maine Exp. Sta. Bull. 123. 

Oxyptilus periscelidactylus, 4th Rpt, Minn. State Ent., page 221. 

Pachymerus chinensis, Yearbook, U.S.D.A., 1898, page 242. 

Pachymerus quadrimaculatus, Yearbook, U.S.D.A., 1898, page 245. 

Pachynematus extensicornis, Insect Life, Vol. IV, pages 174-177. 

Pachyzancla bipunctalis, Bur. Ent. Bull. 109-11. 

Paleacrita vernata, Bur. Ent. Bull. 68-11. 

Papaipema nitela, 111. Exp. Sta. Bull. 95. 

Papilio polyxenes, Bur. Ent. Bull. 82-11. 

Parasites, Introduction of, Bur. Ent. Bull. 91. 

Pegomya brassicce, N. J. Exp. Sta. Bull. 200. 

Pegomya fusciceps, Bur. Ent. Circ. 63. 

Pegomya vicina, N. Y. Geneva Exp. Sta. Bull. 99. 

Pelidnota punctata, Okla. Exp. Sta. Bull. 26. 

Pemphigus betce, Wash. Exp. Sta. Bull. 42. 

Peniatoma ligata, Bur. Ent. Bull. 86. 

Peridroma margaritosa, Bur. Ent. Bull. 29. 

Periplaneta americana, Bur. Ent. Circ. 51. 

Peronea minuta, Iowa Exp. Sta. Bull. 102. 

Phlegethontius spp.. Bur. En,t. Circ. 123, 

Phloeophthnrus liminaris, Bur. Ent. Bull. 68-IX. 

Phlyctoenia ferrugalis, N. Y. Cornell Exp. Sta. Bull. 190. 

Phorbia cepetorum, Bur. Ent. Circ. 63. 

Phorbia rubivora, N. Y. Cornell Exp. Sta. Bull. 126. 

Phorodon humuli, Cal. Exp. Sta. Bull. 160. 

Phthorimcea operculella, Cal, Exp. Sta. Bull. 135, Farmers' Bull. 120, 

Phyllotreta pusilla, Bur, Ent. Bull. 43. 

Phyllotretra vittata, Rpt. Ent. U.S.D.A., 1884, pages 301-304. 

Phylloxera vastratrix, Farmers' Bull. 70. 

Phytonomus nigrirostis, Bur. Ent. Bull. 85-1. 

Phytonomus posticus, Utah Exp. Sta. Bull. 110, 

Phytonomus punctatus, lU. Exp. Sta. Bull. 134. 



REFERENCES 

Piophila casei. Bur. Ent. Bull. 4. 

Plodia inter punctella, N. C. Exp. Sta. Bull. 203. 

Plusia simplex, Bur. Ent. Bull. 33. 

Plutella maculipennis, Ky. Exp. Sta. Bull. 114. 

Pcecilocapsus lineatus, N. Y. Cornell Exp. Sta. Bull. 58. 

Polychrosis viteana, N. Y. Cornell Exp. Sta. Bull. 223. 

Pontia protodice, 1st Rpt. Minn. State Ent., pages 71-77. 

Pontia rapce. Bur. Ent. Bull. 60. 

Porthetria dispar, N. H. Exp. Sta. Bull. 136. 

Prionus imbricornis, 5th Rpt. Minn. State Ent., page 110. 

Prodenia ornithogalli, Bur. Ent. Bull. 43. 

Pseudococcus calceolarice. La. Exp. Sta. Bull. 121. 

Pseudococcus citri, Cal. Exp. Sta. Bull. 214. 

Psila rosce, Bur. Ent. Bull. 33. 

Psoroptes communis, Ind. Exp. Sta. Bull. 80. 

Psylla pyricola, Rpt. Conn. State Ent., 1903, pages 262-266. 

Psylliodes punctulata, Bur. Ent. Bull. 66-VI. 

Pteronus ribesii, Rpt. Conn. State Ent., 1902, pages 170-172. 

'Pulvinaria vitis, 111. Exp. Sta. Bull. 112. 

Pyralis farinalis, N. C. Exp. Sta. Bull. 203. 

Rhagoletis cingulata, N. Y. Cornell Exp. Sta. Bull. 172. 

Rhagoletis pomonella, N. H. Exp. Sta. Circ. 14. 

Rhopobota vacciniana, Mass. Exp. Sta. Bull. 115. 

Sanninoidea exitiosa, Ga. Exp. Sta. Bull. 73. 

Saperda Candida, Bur. Ent. Circ. 32. 

Schistocerus hamatus, Farmers' Bull. 70. 

Schizoneura lanigera, Colo. Exp. Sta. Bull. 133. 

Schizura concinna, N. H. Exp. Sta. Bull. 139. 

Selandria vitis, Rpt. N. J. State Ent., 1889, page 304. 

Sibine stimulea, 4tli Rpt. Minn. State Ent., pages 98-99. 

Silvanus surinamensis, N. C. Exp. Sta. Bull. 203. 

Siphocoryne avenoe, Colo. Exp. Sta. Bull. 133. 

Sitones flavescens, 111. Exp. Sta. Bull. 134. 

Sitotroga cerealla, N. C. Exp. Sta. Bull. 203. 

Sphenophorus maidis, Bur. Ent. Bull. 95-11. 

Sphenophorus spp.. 111. Exp. Sta. Bull. 95. 

Sphinx spp., 4tli Rpt. Minn. State Ent., page 29. 

Spilonota ocellana, Rpt. Conn. State Ent., 1909, page 353. 

Stomoxys calcitrans, Bur. Ent. Circ. 71. 

Synanthedon pictipes, Bur. Ent. Bull. 68-IV. 

Synchlora cerata, 8tli Rpt. N. Y. State Ent., pages 129-133. 

Systena blanda, Bur. Ent. Bull. 23. 



REFERENCES 389 

Systena spp., 23d Rpt. 111. State Ent., page 107. 

Tabanidce, Ky. Exp. Sta. Bull. 151. 

Tarsonemus waitei. Bur. Ent. Bull. 97-VI. 

Tenebrio molitor, Farmers' Bull. 45. 

Tenehroides mauritanicus, N. C. Exp. Sta. Bull. 203. 

Tetranychus bimacidatus, Bur. Ent. Circ. 150. 

Thrips tabaci, Fla. Exp. Sta. Bull. 46. 

Thyreocoris pidicaria, Mich. Exp. Sta. Bull. 102. 

Thyridopteryx ephemerceformis, N. J. Exp. Sta. Bull. 181. 

Tibicen septendecim. Bull. 71. 

Ticks : classification, Bur. Ent. Bull. 72. 

Tinea granella, Bur. Ent. Bull. 8. 

Tinea pellionella, Bur. Ent. Circ. 36. 

TipulidcR, Bur. Ent. Bull. 85-VII. 

Tischeria malifoliella, Bur. Ent. Bull. 68-III. 

Toxoptera graminum, Bur. Ent. Circ. 93. 

Tribolium confusum, Farmers' Bull. 45. 

Tribolium navale, Farmers' Bull. 45. 

Trichobaris trinotata, Bur. Ent. Bull. 33. 

Trichodectes spp., Minn. Exp. Sta. Bull. 48. 

T yloderma fragarioe, Ky. Exp. Sta. Bull. 80. 

Typhlocyba comes, N. Y. Geneva Exp. Sta. Bull. 344. 

Typophorus canellus, Maine Exp. Sta. Rpt., 1895, pages 106-110. 

Uranotes melinus. Bur. Ent. Bull. 57. 

Xyleborus dispar, Bur. Ent. Bull. 7. 

Xylina spp., N. Y. Cornell Exp. Sta. Bull. 123. 

Zophodia grossularice, 4tli Rpt. Minn. State Ent., page 214. 



INDEX 



Abbott's Sphinx, 273. 
Abdomen, 10. 
Acanthiidce, 28. 
Acanthoscelides obtectus, 365. 
Accessories : 

cut-off, 102. 

extension rod, 101. 

hose, 102. 

mixing tanks, 104. 

nozzles, 100. 

spray tanks, 103. 

strainers, 103. 
Achemon Sphinx, 272. 
Acid, carbolic, emulsion, 77. 

hydrocyanic, 82. 
Acleris minuta, 300. 
Acrididoe, 23, 142. 
Acronycta ohlinita, 275. 
yEgeria rutilans, 234. 

tipuliformis, 243. 
Agitator, 90. 
Agonoderus pallipes, 125. 
Agrilus ruficollis, 244. 
Agriotes mancus, 107. 
Agromyza simplex, 138. 
Agrotis ypsilon, 141. 
Air chamber, 90. 

tubes, 11. 
Alabama argillacea, 175. 
Aleiirodes vapor ariorum, 205. 
Alfalfa Caterpillar, 175. 

Leaf-weevil, 162. 
Alfalfa insects (additional) : 

Army Worm, 172. 

Clover Leaf -weevil, 164. 

Clover Seed Chalcid Fly, 220. 

Cutworms, 140. 

Fall Army Worm, 173. 

Garden Webworm, 183. 

Grasshoppers, 142. 



Alimentary canal, 13. 
Allorhina nitida, 324. 
Almond, injury by Thrips, 329. 
Alsophila pometaria, 281. 
Alypia octomaculata, 275. 
American Cockroach, 353. 
Ampeloglypter ater, 247. 

sesostris, 246. 
Ampelophagus myron, 272. 
Anaphothrips striata, 204. 
Anarsia lineatella, 248. 
Anasa tristis, 190. 
Anatomy of insects : 

external, 7. 

internal, 11. 
Ancylis comptana, 303. 

nubeculana, 305. 
Angoumois Grain-moth, 358. 
Animal pests, 371. 
Anomala, Light-loving, 262. 
Anomala lucicola, 262. 

marginata, 262. 

undulata, 262. 
Anopheles maculipennis, 43. 
Ant: 

Argentine, 351. 

Black, 351. 

characteristics, 110. 

Cornfield, 114. 

House, 351. 

Little Red, 351. 

Strawberry root, 229. 

Winged, 38. 
Ant Tape, 352. 

Poison, 352. 
Ants with plant lice, 318. 
Antennae, types of, 6. 
Anthomyiidos, 33. 
Anthonomus grandis, 208. 

quadrigibbus, 333. 

scutellaris, 334. 

signatus, 337. 
391 



392 



INDEX 



Anthrenus scrophularioe, 357. 
Apatela oblinita, 275. 
Aphididce, characteristics, 28. 
Aphis: 

Apple, 316. 

Bean, 201. 

Beet root, 115. 

Black Peach, 229, 320. 

Brown Plum, 321. 

Cabbage, 202. 

Cherry, 318. 

Clover, 317. 

Corn Leaf, 198. 

Corn Root, 113. 

Cotton, 199. 

Currant, 319. 

European Grain, 198, 317. 

Grapevine, 319. 

Green Peach, 198, 320. 

Hop, 203, 321. 

Mealy Plum, 321. 

Melon, 199. 

Pea, 200. 

Potato, 202. 

Rosy Apple, 317. 

Spinach, 198. 

Spring Grain, 196. 

Strawberry Root, 229. 

Wheat, 222. 

Woolly Apple, 226. 
Aphis bakeri, 317. 

brassicoe, 202. 

forbesi, 229. 

gossypii, 199. 

maidi-radicis ,113. 

maidis, 198. 

persicoB-niger, 229, 320. 

pomi, 316. 

rumicis, 201. 

setarice, 321. 

sorbi, 317. 
Apina, 39. 
Apparatus, dusting, 99. 

spraying, 92. 
Apple Aphis, 316. 
Rosy, 317. 
Woolly, 226. 

Caterpillar, Red-humped, 271. 

Curculio, 333. 

Leaf Bucculatrix, 278. 

Leaf-folder, Lesser, 306. 

Leaf-hopper, 313. 



Leaf-sewer, 305. 

Leaf Skeletonizer, 277. 

Leaf Trumpet Miner, 309. 

Maggot, 343. 

Red Bugs, 348. 

Tree Borer, 

Flat-headed, 237. 

Round-headed, 235. 
Twig-borer, 250. 
Worm, Lesser, 339. 
Apple insects (additional) : 
Anomalas, 262. 
Bag-worm, 307. 
Browntail Moth, 292. 
Bud-moth, 298. 
Buffalo Tree-hopper, 253. 
Cigar Case-bearer, 306. 
Climbing Cutworms, 328. 
Clover Aphis, 317. 
Codling Moth, 337. 
Cranberry Spanworm, 283. 
Elm Spanworm, 283. 
European Grain Aphis, 317. 
Fall Canker-worm, 281. 
Fall Webworm, 296. 
Flower Thrips, 331. 
Fruit-tree Leaf-roller, 302. 
Green Fruit Worm, 325. 
Green June Beetle, 324. 
Gypsy Moth, 290. 
Imbricated Snout Beetle, 329. 
Indian Euphoria, 323. 
Leaf Grumpier, 297. 
Lime-tree Winter Moth, 284. 
New York Weevil, 329. 
Oblique Banded Leaf Roller, 302. 
Oyster-shell Scale, 258. 
Palmer-worm, 278. 
Pear-leaf Blister-mite, 308. 
Periodical Cicada, 253. 
Pistol Case-bearer, 307. 
Plum Curculio, 332. 
Putnam's Scale, 257. 
Railroad Worm, 343. 
Resplendent Shield-bearer, 310. 
San Jose Scale, 254. 
Scurfy Scale, 259. 
Shot-borer, 249. 
Shot Hole Borer, 241. 
Spring Canker-worm, 279. 
Tarnished Plant-bug, 347. 
Tent Caterpillar, 266. 



INDEX 



393 



Apple insects {continued) : 

Terrapin Scale, 261. 

Tussock Moths, 295. 

Twig-pruner, 251. 

Yellow-necked Caterpillar, 270. 
Apricot, injury by Thrips, 329. 
Archips argyrospila, 302. 

rosaceana, 188, 302. 
Argentine Ant, 110, 351. 
Argopsylla gallinacca, 378. 
Argynnis, 34. 
Army Worm, 172. 

Beet, 174. 

Fall, 173. 

False, 274. 

Wheat-head, 214. 
Arsenate of lead, 66. 

with Bordeaux, 86. 
Arsenic, compounds of, 65. 
Arsenide of cobalt, 169. 
Arthropods, 5. 
Ash-gray Blister-beetle, 144. 
Asparagus Beetle, 152. 

Twelve-spotted, 154. 
Asparagus Miner, 138. 
Aspidiotus ancylus, 257. 

forbesi, 257. 

ostreoeformis, 257. 

perniciosus, 254. 
Assassin bugs, 28. 
Asilidce, 32. 
Atomizer, 92. 
Atrytone, 34. 
Aulacaspis rosce, 260. 
Australian Roach, 353. 
Autographa brassicce, 178. 
Automatic sprayers, 93. 
Automeris, 35. 

B 

Bacterial diseases of insects, 50. 
Bag-worm, 307. 
Balaninus caryoe, 368. 

proboscideus, 368. 

rectus, 368. 
Bamboo extension rods, 102. 
Banded Flea-beetle, 158. 
Banding trees, 60. 
Bark-beetle, Peach, 242. 
Barley insects (see Wheat) . 
Barley Straw Worm, 130. 
Barred-winged Onion Maggot, 121. 



Barrel pumps, 94, 
Barrier : 

ant tape, 352. 

oil, 194. 

tanglefoot, 60. 
Bean Aphis, 201. 

Lady Beetle, 148. 

Leaf-beetle, 147. 

Leaf-roller, 188. 

Weevil, 365. 

Weevil, Four-spotted, 366. 
Bean insects (additional) : 

Blister-beetles, 145. 

Cutworms, 140. 

Lima Bean Stem-borer, 136. 

Pale-striped Flea-beetle, 157. 

Pea-aphis, 200. 

Pea-moth, 217. 

Red Spider, 207. 

Root Maggots, 121. 

Smaller Corn Stalk-borer, 127. 

Striped Garden Caterpillar, 171. 

Zebra-caterpillar, 171. 
Bedbug, 354. 
Bee, illustrated, 39. 
Beet Army Worm, 174. 

Leaf-beetle, Larger, 147. 

Leafhopper, 195. 

Webworm, Southern, 185. 
Beet insects (additional) : 

Army Worm, 172. 

Blister-beetles, 144. 

Carrot Beetle, 124. 

Celery Leaf-tier, 186. 

Cutworms, 140. 

Fall Army Worm, 173. 

Garden Webworm, 183. 

Grasshoppers, 142. 

Hop Flea-beetle, 162. 

Pale-striped Flea-beetle, 157. 

Root lice, 115. 

Spinach Flea-beetle, 159. 
Leaf-miner, 189. 

Striped Garden Caterpillar, 171. 

Sugar-beet Webworm, 184. 

Triangular Flea-beetle, 160. 

Twelve-spotted Cucumber Beetle, 
152. 

Zebra-caterpillar, 171. 
Beetle : 

Ash-gray Blister, 144. 

Asparagus, 152. 



394 



INDEX 



Beetle {continued): 

Banded Flea, 158. 

Bean Lady, 148. 

Bean Leaf, 147. 

Black Blister, 145. 

Blister, 144. 

Buttercup Oil, 145. 

Carpet, 357. 

Carrot, 124. 

characteristics of, 28. 

Cherry Leaf, 263. 

Cigarette, 370. 

Colorado Potato, Frontispiece, 63, 
145. 

Confused Flour, 364. 

Cucumber Flea, 156. 

Grape Flea, 264. 

Gray Blister, 145. 

Green June, 324. 

Hop Flea, 162. 

Imbricated Snout, 167, 329. 

Larger Beet Leaf, 147. 

May, 109. 

Nuttall's Blister, 145. 

Pale-striped Flea, 157. 

Peach Bark, 242. 

Rust-red Flour, 364. 

Saw-toothed Grain, 364. 

Slender Seed-corn Ground, 124. 

Spinach Flea, 159. 

Squash Lady, 148. 

Strawberry Flea, 266. 
Leaf, 263. 

Striped Blister, 144. 
Cucumber, 150. 
Flea, 158. 

Sugar-cane, 123. 

Sweet Potato Flea, 161. 

Three-lined Potato, 146. 

Tobacco Flea, 159. 

Tortoise, 154. 

Triangular Flea, 160. 

Twelve-spotted Asparagus, 154. 
Cucumber, 152. 

Two-striped Sweet Potato, 155. 

Western Cabbage Flea, 159. 
Behavior of insects, 18. 
Bembecia marginata, 234. 
Berry Moth, Grape, 341. 
Bill-bugs, 128. 
Birds, 45. 
Biting insects, insecticides for, 65. 



Biting lice : 

characteristics of, 24. 

on animals, 375. 

on poultry, 377. 
Biting mouth parts, 8. 
Blackberry Leaf -miner, 310. 

Pithy-gall, 247. 
Blackberry insects (additional) : 

Anomalas, 262. 

Negro Bug, 348. 

Oblique Banded Leaf Roller, 302. 

Raspberry By turns, 342. 
Cane-borer, 245. 
Cane-maggot, 245. 
Root-borer, 234. 
Sawfly, 287. 
Spanworm, 327. 

Red-necked Cane-borer, 244. 

Rose Scale, 260. 

Smeared Dagger, 275. 

Strawberry Crown Moth, 234. 
Leaf-roller, 303. 

Tree Crickets, 252. 
Black Blister-beetle, 145. 
Black Flies, 32. 

Blackhead Cranberry Worm, 299. 
Black leaf extract, 76. 

forty, 75. 
Black-legged Tortoise Beetle, 155. 
Black Peach Aphis, 229, 320. 
Blatella germanica, 353. 
Blatta orientalis, 353, 
Blattidce, 23. 
Blissus leucopterus, 193. 
Blister-beetles, 144. 
Blister-mite, Pear-leaf, 308. 
Blood of insects, 12. 
Blossom Midge, Grape, 331. 
Blue vitriol, 85. 
Body walls, 15. 
Boll Weevil, Cotton, 208. 
Boll-worm, Cotton, 211. 
Bo7nbus, 39. 
Bordeavix mixture, 85. 

nozzle, 100. 
Borer : 

Apple Twig, 250. 

Clover Root, 116. 

Clover Stem, 127. 

Corn Stalk, 115. 

Cotton Square, 213. 

Currant, 243. 



INDEX 



395 



Borer {continued): 

destruction of, 61. 

Flat-headed Apple-tree, 237. 

Grape Root, 231. 

Hop-plant, 136. 

Lesser Peach, 240. 

Lima Bean Stem, 136. 

Peach, 237. 

Potato Stalk, 135. 

Prionid, 232. 

protection against, 236. 

Raspberry Cane, 245. 

Raspberry Root, 234. 

Pted-necked Cane, 244. 

Round-headed Apple-tree, 235. 

Shot, 249. 

Shot Hole, 241. 

Smaller Corn Stalk, 127. 

Squash, 134. 

Stalk, 132. 

Strawberry Crown, 233. 

Sugar-cane, 126. 

Sweet Potato Root, 117. 
Bot-fly : 

Horse, 371. 

Ox, 372. 

Sheep, 372. 
Braconid parasite, 46. 
Bran mash, 68. 
Bristly Rose Slug, 181. 
Brown Ant, 114. 
Brown Plum Aphis, 321. 
Browntail Moth, 292. 
Bruchus chinensis, 366. 

obtectus, 365. 

pisorum, 368. 

quadrimaculatus, 366. 
Brucophagus funebris, 220. 
Bryobia pratensis, 208, 321. 
Bubonic plague, 44. 
Bucculatrix, Apple-leaf, 278. 
Bucculatrix pornifoliella, 278. 
Bucket pvimp, 92. 
Bud Mite, Peach, 331. 
Bud-moth, 298. 
Budworm : 

Tobacco, 213. 

Tobacco False, 211. 
Buffalo Moth, 357. 

Tree-hopper, 253. 
Bug: 

Apple Red, 348. 



Bed, 354. 

Bill, 128. 

Chinch, 193. 

False Chinch, 192. 

Four-lined Leaf, 311. 

Green, 196. 

Harlequin Cabbage, 191. 

June, 109. 

Maize Bill, 128. 

Mealy, 206. 

Negro, 348. 

Plant, 221. 

Squash, 190. 

Svigar-cane Mealy, 115. 

Tarnished Plant, 192, 347. 

Timothy BUI, 129. 
Buhach, 76. 
Buprestidce, 30. 
Burning caterpillars, 59. 
Buttercup Oil Beetle, 145. 
Butterflies, characteristics of, 34. 
Byturus, Raspberry, 342. 
Byturus unicolor, 342. 



Cabbage Aphis, 202. 

Bug, Harlequin, 191. 

Curculio, 137. 

Flea-beetle, Western, 159. 

Looper, 178. 

Maggot, 118. 

Webworm, 185. 

Worm : 

Cross-striped, 177. 
Imported, 176. 
Southern, 177. 
Cabbage insects (additional) : 

Cutworms, 140. 

Diamond-back Moth, 178. 

Pale-striped Flea-beetle, 157. 

Striped Flea-beetle, 158. 

Zebra-caterpillar, 171. 
Cacoecia argyrospila, 302. 
Cadelle, 364. 
Calandra granaria, 364. 

oryza, 364. 
Calico Back, 191. 
Caliroa amygdalina, 289. 

cerasi, 288. 
Calocampa nubera, 274. 
Calosoma, 47. 
Camnula pellucida, 143. 



396 



INDEX 



Canarsia hammondi, 277. 
Cane-borer: 

Raspberry, 245. 

Red-necked, 244. 
Cane insects (see Sugar Cane). 
Cane-maggot, Raspberry, 245. 
Canker-worm : 

Fall, 281. 

Spring, 279. 
Cantharis nuttalli, 145. 
Capitate antenna, 6. 
CapsidoB, 28. 
Carabidce, 30. 

Carbolated whitewash, 242. 
Carbolic acid, emulsion, 77. 

for wounds, 374. 
Carbon bisulphide, 80. 

tetrachloride, 81. 
Carpenter Moths, 35. 
Carpet Beetle, 357. 
Carpocapsa pomonella, 337. 
Carrion beetles, 30. 
Carrot Beetle, 124. 
Carrot Rust-fly, 122. 
Carrot insects (see Celery). 
Case-bearer : 

Cigar, 306. 

Pistol, 307. 
Cassida bivittata, 155. 

nigripes, 155. 
Cat and Dog Flea, 354. 
Caterpillar : 

Alfalfa, 175. 

Celery, 170. 

Clover Seed, 217. 

Forest Tent, 269. 

Grapevine Hog, 272. 

Hedgehog, 182. 

Melon, 216. 

Red-humped Apple, 271. 

Saddle-back, 183. 

Salt-marsh, 182. 

Striped Garden, 171. 

Tent, 266. 

Yellow-bear, 181. 

Yellow-necked, 270. 

Zebra, 171. 
Caterpillar (see also Worm). 
Cattle-tick, 375. 

Cauliflower insects (see Cabbage). 
Cecidomyiidoe, 32. 
Celery Caterpillar, 170. 



Leaf-tier, 186. 

Looper, 178. 
Celery insects (additional) : 

Carrot Beetle, 124. 
Rust-fly, 122. 

Striped Garden Caterpillar, 171. 

Zebra-caterpillar, 171. 
Cephus occidentalis, 129. 
Ceramhycidae, 30. 
Ceratoma trifurcata, 147. 
Cereals, insects (see Stored Products). 
Ceresa bubalus, 253. 
Ceutorhyncus rapoe, 137. 
Chcetocnenia confinis, 161. 
Chcetopsis cenea, 121. 
Chafer, Rose, 322. 
Chalcid Fly, Clover Seed, 220. 
Chalcididoe, 37. 
Chalcodertnus ceneus, 211. 
Characteristics of insects, 5. 
Cheese Skipper, 358. 
Cherry Aphis, 318. 

Fruit Maggot, 345. 

Leaf-beetle, 263. 

Scale, 257. 
Cherry insects (additional) : 

Apple Twig-borer, 250. 

BrowntaU Moth, 292. 

Bud-moth, 298. 

G>T>sy Moth, 290. 

Lesser Peach-borer, 240. 

Peach Bark-beetle, 242." 

Peach-borer, 237. 

Pear-slug, 288. 

Plum Curculio, 332. 

Rose-chafer, 322. 

San Jose Scale, 254. 

Shot-borer, 249. 

Shot Hole Borer, 241. 

Terrapin Scale, 261. 

Tussock Moths, 295. 
Chestnut Weevil, 368. 

Larger, 368. 
Chickens, value of, 57. 
Chicken Mite, 377. 
Chinch-bug, 193. 

False, 192. 
Chionaspis furfura, 259. 
Chironomidce, 32. 
Chitin, 15. 

Chloridea virescens, 213. 
Chrysalis, 20. 



INDEX 



397 



ChrysomelidcE , 30. 
Chrysomyia macellaria, 374. 
Chrysopa, 48. 
Cicada, Periodical, 253. 
Cicadidce, 27. 
Cigar Case-bearer, 306. 
Cigarette Beetle, 370. 
Cimex lectularius, 354. 
Circulatory system, 12. 
Citrus Mealy Bug, 206. 
Cladius pectinicornis, 181. 
Classification, basis of, 22. 
Clavate antenna, 6. 
Clear-wing moths, 35. 
Cleora pampinaria, 283. 
Click beetles, 30, 107. 
Climbing Cutworms, 328. 
Clivina impressifrons, 124. 
Clothes Moths, 355. 
Clover Flower-midge, 219. 

Hay Worm, 186. 

Leaf-weevil, 164. 
Lesser, 166. 

Mite, 208. 

Root-borer, 116. 

Seed-caterpillar, 217. 

Seed Chalcid Fly, 220. 

Stem-borer, 127. 

Weevil, Flavescent, 167. 
Clover insects (additional) : 

Army Worm, 172. 

Cutworms, 140. 

Fall Army Worm, 173. 

Grasshoppers, 142. 

Northern Grass Worm, 179. 
Cnemidocoptes gallinw, 378. 

mutans, 378. 
Cobalt, arsenide of, 169. 
Coccidce, 28. 
Coccinellidce, 30. 
Cockroach : 

American, 353. 

Australian, 353. 

German, 353. 

Oriental, 353. 
Cocoons of parasite, 47. 
Codling Moth, 337. 
Coiled Rose Slug, 181. 
Colaspis hrunnea, 263. 
Coleophora fletcheralla, 306. 

malivorella, 307. 
Coleoptera, 28. 



Colorado Potato-beetle, Frontispiece, 

63, 145. 
Commercial lime sulphur, 70. 
Complete metamorphosis, 19. 
Compressed air outfits, 98. 
Confused Flour Beetle, 364. 
Conotrachelus cratcegi, 336. 

nenuphar, 332. 
Contact insecticides, 70. 
Contarinia johnsoni, 331. 

pyrivora, 346. 

sorghicola, 219. 

tritici, 218. 
Control of insects : 

banding, 60. 

burning, 59. 

contact insecticides, 70. 

covering, 60. 

crop rotation, 55. 

destroying borers, 61. 
weeds, 57. 
egg masses, 60. 

fall plowing, 56. 

farm practice, 55. 

fumigants, 80. 

fungicides with poisons, 85. 

hand picking, 59. 

insecticides, 63. 

mechanical means, 58. 

poison insecticides, 65. 

protective washes, 79. 

removing crop remnants, 57. 

removing dead limbs, 61. 

repellents, 79. 

stimulating plant growth, 58. 

time of planting, 57. 

traps, 62. 

use of poultry, 57. 
Copper sulphate, 85. 
Coptocycla bicolor, 155. 
Coptodisca splendoriferella, 310. 
Coreidoe, 28. 

Corimelcena pulicaria, 348. 
Corn Bill-bugs, 128. 

Ear-worm, 211. 

Leaf-aphis, 198. 

Root Aphis, 113. 

Root Webworms, 112. 

Root-worm, Southern, 111, 
Western, 111. 

Stalk Borer, 125. 
Smaller, 127. 



398 



INDEX 



Corn insects (additional) : 

Agonoderus, 124. 

Army Worm, 172. 

Blister-beetles, 144. 

Carrot Beetle, 124. 

Chinch-bug, 193. 

Cutworms, 140. 

Fall Army Worm, 173. 

Garden Webworm, 183. 

Grasshoppers, 142. 

Ground Beetles, 124. 

Leather Jackets, 110. 

Root Maggots, 121. 

Rose-chafer, 322. 

Seed-corn Maggot, 121. 

Slender Seed-corn Ground-beetle, 
124. 

Spring Grain-aphis, 196. 

Stalk Borer, 132. 

Sugar-cane beetle, 123. 

Twelve-spotted Cucumber Beetle, 
111. 

Vagabond Crambus, 113. 

Wheat Wireworm, 107. 

White Grubs, 109. 

Wireworms, 107. 
Cornfield Ant, 114. 
Corrosive sublimate, 352. 
Cossidce, 35. 
Cotton Aphis, 199. 

Boll Weevil, 208. 

Boll-worm, 211. 

Cutworms, 213. 

Square-borer, 213. 

Stainer, 222. 

Worm, 175. 
Cotton insects (additional) : 

Cowpea Curculio, 211. 

Garden Webworm, 183. 

Pale-striped Flea-beetle, 157. 

Plant-bugs, 221. 

Red Spider, 207. 

Sharpshooters, 222. 
Cottony Maple-scale, 260. 
Covering for plants, 60. 
Cowpea Curculio, 211. 

Weevil, 366. 
Cowpea insects (see Peas). 
Crambus hortuellus, 231. 

luteolellus, 113. 

mutahilis, 112. 

trisectus, 112. 



Crambus vulvivagellus, 113. 
Cranberry Fruit-worm, 326. 

Girdler, 231. 

Span worm, 283. 

Worm : 

Blackhead, 299. 
Yellowhead, 300. 
Cranberry insects (additional) : 

Chain Spotted Geometer, 284, 

False Army-worm, 274. 

Fire Worm, 299. 
Craponius inoequalis, 335. 
Crickets, 23. 

Tree, 252. 
Griddle mixture, 143. 
Crioceris asparagi, 152. 

duodecimpunctata, 154. 
Crop of insects, 13. 
Crop rotation, 55. 
Cross-striped Cabbage Worm, 177. 
Croton Bug, 353. 
Crown-girdler, Strawberry, 230. 
Crown-borer, Strawberry, 233. 
Crown Moth, Strawberry, 234. 
Crude oil emulsion, 74. 
Grumpier, Leaf, 297. 
Ctenocephalus canis, 354. 
Cuban Hen Flea, 378. 
Cucumber Beetle. 

Striped, 150. 

Twelve-spotted, 152. 
Cucumber Flea-beetle, 156. 
Cucumber insects (additional) : 

Melon Aphis,'^199. 

Melon Caterpillar, 216. 

Pickle Worm, 215. 

Red Spider, 207. 

Squash Borer, 134. 

Squash-bug, 190. 

Squash Lady Beetle, 148. 
Culicidce, 32, 350. 
Curculio : 

Apple, 333. 

Cabbage, 137. 

Cowpea, 211. 

Grape, 335. 

Plum, 332. 

Quince, 336. 

Rhubarb, 138. 
Curculionidce, 30. 
Currant Aphis, 319. 

Borer, 243. 



INDEX 



399 



Currant Fruit-fly, 346. 

Span worm, 282. 

Stem-girdler, 246. 

Worm : 

Imported, 285. 
Native, 286. 
Currant insects (additional) : 

Four-lined Leaf-bug, 311. 

San Jose Scale, 254. 

Terrapin Scale, 261. 
Cut-off, 102. 

Cutworms, 140, 213, 328. 
Cydia nigricana, 217. 
Cylas forrnicarius, 117. 
Cymatophora ribearia, 282. 

D 

Dagger, Smeared, 275. 

Damage by insects, 3. 

Dasyneura leguminicola, 219. 

Datana ministra, 270. 

Definite Marked Tussock Moth, 295. 

Dermanyssus gallince, 377. 

Desmia funeralis, 303. 

Destroying egg masses, 60. 

weeds, 57. 
Diabrotica duodecimpunctata, 111, 152. 

longicornis, 111. 

vittata, 150. 
Diacrisia virginica, 181. 
Diamond-back Moth, 177-178. 
Diaphania hyalinata, 216. 

nitidalis, 215. 
Diastrophus turgidus, 247. 
Diatrcea saccharalis, 126. 

zeacolella, 125. 
Dichomeris ligulellus, 278. 
Dicyphus minimus, 195. 
Digestive system, 13. 
Diphadnus appendiculatus, 286. 
Diptera, 31. 

Diseases carried by insects, 42. 
Disk nozzle, 100. 
Disonycha triangularis, 160. 

xanthomelcena, 159. 
Dispersal of insects, 40. 
Distillate oil emulsion, 261, 330. 
Dog Flea, 354. 
Dolerus arvensis, 180. 

collaris, 180. 
Domestic animal pests, 371. 



Dragon Flies, 24. 
Drasteria erechtea, 179. 
Dry-slaked lime, 79. 
Dusting apparatus, 99. 
Dysdercus suturellus, 221. 

E 

Ear-worm, Corn, 211. 
Eccoptogaster rugulosus, 241. 
Egg parasites, 46. 
Egg-plant insects (see Potato). 
Eggs of parasite, 47. 
Eight-spotted Forester, 275. 
Elaphidion villosum, 251. 
Elasmopalpus lignosellus, 127. 
Elateridoe, 30, 107. 
Electro process, 67. 
Elm Span worm, 283. 
Emphytus cinctus, 181. 
Enipoasca mali, 313. 
Empria maculata, 288. 
Emulsion : 

carbolic acid, 77. 

crude oil, 74. 

distillate oil, 261, 330. 

kerosene,. 73. 

linseed oil, 74. 
Enarmonia inter stinctana, 217. 

prunivora, 339. 
Endelomyia rosce, 181. 
Enemies of insects, 45. 
Ennomos subsignarius, 283. 
Ephestia kuehniella, 360. 
Epiccerus imbricatus, 167, 329. 
Epicauta cinerea, 145. 

pennsylvanica, 145. 

vittata, 144. 
Epilachna borealis, 148. 

corrupta, 148. 
Epitrix cucumeris, 156. 

parvula, 159. 
Epochra canadensis, 346. 
Erannis tiliaria, 284. 
Eriocampoides cerasi, 288. 
Eriophyes pyri, 308. 
Esophagus of insects, 13. 
Estigmene acrcea, 182. 
Eudamus proteus, 188. 
Eudemis vacciniana, 299. 
Eulecanium nigrofasciatum, 261. 
Euphoria inda, 323. 



400 



INDEX 



Euphoria, Indian, 323. 
Euproctis chrysorrhoea, 292. 
European Fruit Lecanium, 260. 

Fruit-scale, 257. 

Grain Aphis, 198, 317. 

Grain-moth, 359. 
Eurymus eurytheme, 175. 
Eutettix tenella, 195. 
Euthrips nicotianoe, 204. 

pyri, 329. 

tritici, 26, 331. 
Evergestis rimosalis, 177. 
Extension rods, 101. 
External anatomy, 7. 
Eyes, structure, 7. 



Fall Army Worm, 173. 

Canker-worm, 281. 

plowing, 56. 

Webworm, 296. 
False Army-worm, 274. 

Bud worm. Tobacco, 211. 

Chinch-bug, 192. 
Farm practice, 55. 
Fat bodies, 14. 
Femur, 9. 
Fever, malarial, 43. 

spotted, 44. 

typhoid, 42. 

yellow, 44. 
Fidia viticida, 224. 
Field crop insects, 107. 
Filiform antenna, 6. 
Fire Worm, 299. 
Fish, Silver, 357. 

Flat-headed Apple-tree Borer, 237. 
Flavescent Clover-weevU, 167. 
Flea: 

carrier of disease, 44. 

Cat and Dog, 354. 

characteristics of, 30. 

Cuban Hen, 378. 

House, 354. 

illustrated, 30. 
Flea-beetle : 

Banded, 158. 

Cucumber, 156. 

Grape, 264. 

Hop, 162. 

Pale-striped, 157. 



Potato, 156. 

Spinach, 159. 

Strawberry, 266. 

Striped, 158. 

Sweet Potato, 161. 

Tobacco, 159. 

Tomato, 156. 

Triangular, 160. 

Western Cabbage, 159. 
Flour Beetle : 

Confused, 364. 

Rust-red, 364. 
Flour Moth, Mediterranean, 360. 
Flower-midge, Clover, 219. 
Flower Thrips, 26, 331. 
Fly: 

Carrot Rust, 122. 

characteristics of, 31. 

Clover Seed Chalcid, 220. 

Currant Fruit, 346. 

Gad, 379. 

Grape Saw, 287. 

Greenhouse White, 205. 

Hessian, 139. 

Horn, 379. 

Horse, 379. 

Horse Bot, 371. 

House, 42, 349. 

Ox Bot, 372. 

Raspberry Saw, 287. 

Screw- worm, 374. 

Sheep Bot, 372. 

Stable, 349. 

Strawberry Saw, 288. 

Tobacco Suck, 195. 

Western Grass-stem Saw, 129. 

Wheat Saw, 180. 
Fly poison, 350. 
Forest Tent Caterpillar, 269. 
Forester, Eight-spotted, 275. 
Formalin and milk, 350. 
Formicina, 39, 110. 
Foot of insect, 10. 
Four-lined Leaf-bug, 311. 
Four-spotted Bean Weevil,, 366. 
Fruit-fly, Currant, 346. 
Fruit insects, 224. 
Fruit Maggot, Cherry, 345. 
Fruit-tree Leaf-roller, 302. 
Fruit- worm : 

Cranberry, 326. 

Gooseberry, 326. 



INDEX 



401 



Fruit-worm {continued) : 

Green, 325. 

Tomato, 211. 
Fumigants, 80. 
Fumigating tub, 200. 
Fumigation : 

greenhouse, 83. 
. house, 83. 

nursery stock, 82. 

tobacco, *83. 
Fungicides with posions, 85. 
Fungous diseases of insects, 50. 
Functions of stages in growth, 20. 



Gadflies, 379. 
Galerucella cavicollis, 263. 
Gallinippers, 110. 
Gall-maker, Grape-cane, 246. 
Ganglia, 14. 
Garden insects, 107. 

Web worm, 183. 
Gas, fumigating, 80. 
Gasoline sprayers, 97. 
Gastrophilus equi, 371. 
Geared sprayers, 96. 
General feeders, fruits : 

Anomalas, 262. 

Bag-worm, 307. 

Browntail Moth, 292. 

Buffalo Tree-hopper, 253. 

Chain Spotted Geometer, 284. 

Climbing Cutworms, 328. 

Clover Mite, 321. 

Cottony Maple Scale, 260. 

Cranberry Spanworm, 283. 

Elm Spanworm, 283. 

European Fruit Lecanium, 260. 

Fall Weljworm, 296. 

Flower Thrips, 331. 

Forest Tent Caterpillar, 269. 

Fruit-tree Leaf-roller, 302. 

Green June Beetle, 324. 

Gypsy Moth, 290. 

Imbricated Snout Beetle, 329. 

Indian Euphoria, 323. 

New York Weevil, 329. 

Oblique Banded Leaf Roller, 302. 

Oyster-shell Scale, 258. 

Periodical Cicada, 253. 

Putnam's Scale. 257. 

Red-humped Apple Caterpillar, 271. 
2d 



Red Spider, 322. 

San Jose Scale, 254. 

Tarnished Plant-bug, 347. 

Tent Caterpillar, 266. 

Terrapin Scale, 261. 

Tree Crickets, 252. 

Tussock Moths, 295. 

Twig-pruner, 251. 

Yellow-necked Caterpillar, 270. 
General feeders, garden : 

Army Worm, 172. 

Banded Flea-beetle, 158. 

Blister-beetles, 144. 

Celery Leaf-tier, 186. 

Chain Spotted Geometer, 284. 

Cutworms, 140. 

Fall Army Worm, 173. 

Garden Webworm, 183. 

Grasshoppers, 142. 

Hedgehog Caterpillar, 182. 

Imbricated Snout Beetle, 167. 

Onion Thrips, 204. 

Pale-striped Flea-beetle, 157. 

Red Spider, 207. 

Salt-marsh Caterpillar, 182. 

Spinach Aphis, 198. 

Stalk Borer, 132. 

Striped Garden Caterpillar, 171. 

Tarnished Plant-bug, 192. 

White Grubs, 109. 

Wireworms, 107. 

YeUow-bear Caterpillar, 181. 

Zebra-caterpillar, 171. 
Geniculate antenna, 6. 
Geometridce, 36. 
German Roach, 353. 
Giant Water Bug, 27. 
Girdler : 

Cranberry, 231. 

Currant Stem, 246. 

Grapevine, 247. 

Strawberry Crown, 230. 

Twig, 250. 
Gizzard of insects, 13. 

of cricket, 14. 
Golden Tortoise Beetle, 155. 
Gooseberry Fruit-worm, 326. 
Gooseberry insects (see Currant). 
Gouger, Plum, 334. 
Grain Aphis : 

European, 198, 317. 

Spring, 196. 



402 



INDEX 



Grain Beetle, Saw-toothed, 364. 
Grain insects (see Stored Prod 

ucts) . 
Grain Moth : 

Angoumois, 358. 
European, 359. 
Grain weevils, 364. 
Granary Weevil, 364. 
Grape Berry Moth, 341. 

Blossom Midge, 331. 

Cane Gall-maker, 246. 

Colaspis, 263. 

Curculio, 335. 

Flea-beetle, 264. 

Leaf-folder, 303. 

Leaf-hopper, 311. 

Leaf Skeletonizer, 276. 

Phylloxera, 227. 

Plume Moth, 301. 

Root-borer, 231. 

Root-worm, 224. 

Sawfly, 287. 
Grape insects (additional) : 

Abbott's Sphinx, 273. 

Achemon Sphinx, 272. 

Anomalas, 262. 

Apple Twig-borer, 250. 

Cottony Maple Scale, 260. 

Eight-spotted Forester, 275. 

Prionid Borers, 232. 

Rose-chafer, 322. 

San Jose Scale, 254. 

Spotted Pelidnota, 262. 

Tree Crickets, 252. 
Grapevine Aphis, 319. 

Girdler, 247. 

Hog Caterpillar, 272. 
Grapholithidce, 35. 
Grasshoppers, 142. 
Grass-stem Sawfly, Western, 129. 
Grass Thrips, 204. 

Worm, Northern, 179. 
Grass insects (additional), (see Tim- 
othy). 
Gray Blister-beetle, 145. 
Green Bug, 196. 

Fly, 198. 

Fruit Worm, 325. 
Greenhouse fumigation, 83. 
Greenhouse Leaf -tier, 186. 

Thrips, 203. 

White-fly, 205. 



Greenhouse insects (additional) : 

Climbing Cutworms, 328. 

Mealy Bug, 206. 

Oblique Banded Leaf Roller, 188. 

Onion Thrips, 204. 

Red Spider, 207. 

Spinach Aphis, 198. 
Green June Beetle, 324. 

Peach Aphis, 198, 320. 
Ground beetle, 30. 

Seed-corn, 124. 
Grubs, White, 109, 225. 
Gryllidce, 23. 
Gypsy Moth, 290. 



Hcematohia serrata, 379. 

Hcematopinus eurysternus, 374. 
urius, 374. 
vituli, 374. 

Haltica chalybea, 264. 
ignita, 266. 

Hand picking, 59. 

Hand pumps, 92. 

Harlequin Cabbage-bug, 191. 

Harpiphorus maculata, 288. 

Harrisina americana, 276. 

Hawk Moths, 272. 

Hay Worm, Clover, 186. 

Head, appendages, 7. 

Hearing, organs of, 16. 

Heart of insects, 12. 

Heat treatment, for grain insects, 
361. 

Hedgehog Caterpillar, 182. 

Heliothis obsoleta, 211. 
Helioihrips hcemorrhoidalis, 203. 
Hellebore, 68. 
Hellula undalis, 185. 
Hemerocampa antiqua, 19, 295. 
definita, 295. 
leucostigma, 295. 
Hemiptera, 26. 
Hen Flea, Cuban, 378. 
Hessian-fly, 139. 
Heterocordylus tnalinus, 348. 
Heteroptera, 27, 28. 
Hexagonal disks, Tool, 119. 
Hickory Nut Weevil, 368. 
High-pressure nozzle, 101. 
Hog Louse, 374. 



INDEX 



403 



Home-made lime sulphur. 

concentrated, 71. 

regular, 73. 
Homoptera, 26, 27. 
Honeydew, 318. 
Hop Aphis, 203, 321. 

Flea-beetle, 162. 

Plant Borer, 136. 

Snout-moth, 179. 
Hopper-dozer, 143. 
Horizontal pumps, 95. 
Horn-fly, 379. 
Horn Worms, 168. 
Horse Bot-fly, 371. 
Horsefhes, 379. 
Hose, 102. 
House Ant, 351. 

Flea, 354. 

Fly, 42, 349. 

Mosquito, 350. 

Roach, 353. 
Household Pests, 349. 
Hyalopterus arundinis, 321. 
Hydroecia immanis, 136. 
Hydrocyanic acid gas, 82. 
Hylastinus obscurus, 116. 
Hymenoptera, 36. 
Hypena humuli, 179. 
Hyphantria cunea, 296. 
Hypoderma lineata, 372. 
Hypopharynx of insects, 8. 
Hypsopygia costalis, 186. 



IchneumonidoB, 37. 
Imbricated Snout Beetle, 167, 329. 
Incomplete metamorphosis, 20. 
Indian Euphoria, 323. 
Indian-meal Moth, 361. 
Importation of insect pests, 40. 
Imported Cabbage Worm, 176. 

Currant Worm, 285. 
Insecticides, contact, 70. 

general principles, 63. 

poison, 65. 
Insects, characteristics of, 5. 
Insects and disease, 42. 
Insects : 

domestic animals, 371. 

garden and field crops, 107. 

household and stored products, 349 

orchard and small fruits, 224. 



Insect outbreaks, 3. 
Insect powder, 76. 
Instinct of insects, 18. 
Internal anatomy of insects, 11. 
Interrelations of insects, 46. 
Intestines of insects, 14. 
Iridomyrmex humilis, 110, 351. 
Iron extension rods, 101. 
Isia Isabella, 182. 
Isosoma grande, 131. 

hordei, 130. 

tritici, 129. 
Itch Mite, of Poultry, 378. 
Ithycerus noveboracensis, 239. 
Itonida tritici. 218. 



Janus integer, 246. 
Jarring insects, 333. 
Jassidoe, 27, 222. 
Jimson weed, 351. 
Joint- worm, 129. 
June Beetle, Green, 324. 
June Bugs, 109, 225. 

K 



Katydids, 23. 
Kerosene emulsion, 73, 
Kidneys of insects, 14. 
Knapsack pump, 93. 



74. 



Labium of insects, 8. 
Labrum of insects, 8. 
Lace bugs, 28. 
Lachnosterna fusca, 109. 

spp., 29, 109, 225. 
Lady Beetle, 30. 

Bean, 148. 

Squash, 148. 
Lamellate antenna, 6. 
Languria mozardi, 127. 
Laphygma exigua, 174, 

frugiperda, 173. 
Larger Beet Leaf-beetle, 147. 

Chestnut Weevil, 368. 
Laria pisorum, 368. 
Larva, defined, 19. 
Lasiocampidce, 36. 
Lasioderma serricorne, 370. 
Lasius niger americanus, 114. 
Laspeyresia inter stinctana, 217. 



404 



INDEX 



Laspeyresia prunivora, 339. 
Lead arsenate, 66. 
Leaf-aphis, Corn, 198. 
Leaf-aphis (see Aphis). 
Leaf-beetle : 

Bean, 147. 

Cherry, 263. 

Larger Beet, 147. 

Strawberry, 263. 
Leaf-beetle (see Beetle). 
Leaf-bug, Four-lined, 311. 
Leaf Crumpler, 297. 
Leaf-folder : 

Grape, 303. 

Lesser Apple, 306. 
Leafhopper : 

Apple, 313. 

Beet, 195. 

Grape, 311. 
Leaf-miner : 

Apple Trumpet, 309. 

Blackberry, 310. 

Spinach, 189. 

Tobacco, 189. 
Leaf-roller : 

Bean, 188. 

Fruit-tree, 302. 

Oblique Banded, 188, 302. 

Strawberry, 303. 
Leaf-sewer, Apple, 305. 
Leaf -tier : 

Celery, 186. 

Greenhouse, 186. 
Leaf-weevil : 

Alfalfa, 162. 

Clover, 164. 

Lesser Clover, 166. 
Leaf -weevil (see Weevil). 
Leather Jackets, 110. 
Lecanium corni, 260. 
Lecanium, European Fruit, 260. 
Leg, structure of, 9. 
Lema trilineata, 146. 
Lepidoptera, 33. 
Lepidosaphes ulmi, 258. 
Lepisma saccharina, 357. 
Leptinotarsa decemlineata, Frontispiece, 

63, 145. 
Lesser Apple Leaf-folder, 306. 

Apple Worm, 339. 

Clover Leaf- weevil, 166. 

Peach-borer, 240. 



Lethocerus americanus, 27. 
Leucania unipuncta, 172. 
Lice : 

Biting, on animals, 375. 
on poultry, 377. 

Hog, 374. 

Long-nosed Ox, 374. 

Plant (see Plant Lice). 

Poultry, 377. 

Short-nosed Ox, 374. 

Sucking, on animals, 374. 
Light-loving Anomala, 262. 
Ligyrus gibbosus, 124, 

rugiceps, 123. 
Lima Bean Stem-borer, 136. 
Lime, dry-slaked, 79. 

putty, 86. 
Lime sulphur : 

dilution table, 72. 

self-boiled, 88. 

solution, 70. 

summer strength, 87. 
Lime-tree Winter Moth, 284. 
Linseed oil emulsion, 74. 
Lipeurus variabilis, 377. 
Little Red Ant, 351. 
Lixus concavus, 138. 
Locustidce, 23. 
Locusts, 142. 

Long-nosed Ox Louse, 374. 
Looper : 

Cabbage, 178. 

Celery, 178. 
Looper (see Spanworm, Canker-worm). 
Louse : 

Hog, 374. 

Long-nosed Ox, 374. 

Short-nosed Ox, 374. 
Louse on plants (see Aphis). 
Loxostege similalis, 183. 

sticticalis, 184. 
Lygceidw, 28. 
Lygidea mendax, 348. 
Lygus invitus, 348. 

pratensis, 192, 347. 
Lymantriidce, 36. 
Lyperosia irritans, 379. 



M 



Macrobasis unicolor, 144. 
Macrodactylus subspinosus, 322. 



INDEX 



405 



Macrosiphum cerealis, 222. 

granaria, 222. 

pisi, 200. 

solanifolii, 202. 

viticola, 319. 
Maggot : 

Apple, 343. 

Barred-winged Onion, 121. 

Cabbage, 118. 

Carrot, 122. 

Cherry Fruit, 345. 

Onion, 120. 

Raspberry Cane, 245. 

Seed-corn, 121. 

Wheat-stem, 131. 
Maize Bill-bug, 128. 
Malacosoma americana, 266. 

disstria, 269. 
Malarial fever mosquito, 43. 
Mallophaga, 24. 
Malphigian tubes, 14. 
Mamestra legitima, 171. 

picta, 171. 
Mandibles of insects, 8. 
Mantidoe, 23. 

Margaropus annulatus, 375. 
Mash, poison bran, 68. 
Maxillae of insects, 8. 
May beetles, 109, 225. 
Mayetiola destructor, 139. 
Meadow Maggot, 110. 
Meal Snout -moth, 362. 
Mealworm, Yellow, 369. 
Mealy Bug. 

Citrus, 206. 

Sugar-cane, 115. 
Mealy Plum Aphis, 321. 
Measuring Worms (see Spanworm). 
Mechanical means of control, 59. 
Medical Entomology, 42. 
Mediterranean Flour Moth, 360. 
Melanoplus femur-rubrum, 142. 
Melanotus communis, 108. 
Meliana alhilinea, 214. 
Melittia satyriniformis, 134. 
Melee angusticollis, 145. 
Meloidce, 144. 
Melon Aphis, 199. 

Caterpillar, 216. 
Melon insects (additional) : 

Cucumber Flea-beetle, 156. 

Pickle Worm, 215. 



Red Spider, 207. 

Squash Borer, 134. 

Squash-bug, 190. 

Squash Lady Beetle, 148. 

Striped Cucumber Beetle, 150. 

Twelve-spotted Cucumber Beetle, 
152. 
Melophagus ovinus, 376. 
Memythrus polistiform,is, 231, 
Mhnopon spp., 377. 
Meromyza americana, 131. 
Metallus rubi, 310. 
Metamorphosis, complete, 19. 

incomplete, 20. 
Midge : 

Clover Flower, 219. 

Grape-blossom, 331. 

Pear, 346. 

Sorghum, 219. 

Wheat, 218. 
Migratory Locust, 143. 
Mineola indiginella, 297. 

vaccina, 326. 
Miner : 

Apple Leaf Trumpet, 309. 

Asparagus, 138. 

Blackberry Leaf, 310. 

Spinach Leaf, 189. 

Tobacco Leaf, 189. 
Mite: 

characteristics, 5. 

Chicken, 377. 

Clover, 208, 321, 

Depluming, 378. 

Itch, of Poultry, 378. 

Peach Bud, 331. 

Pear-leaf Blister, 308. 

Sheep Scab, 376. 
Mixing tanks, 104. 

Molasses, added to poison spray, 265, 323. 
Moniliform antenna, 6. 
Monomorium minutum, 351. 

pharaonis, 351. 
Monophadnoides ruhi, 287. 
Monoptilota nubilella, 136. 
Monoxia puncticollis, 147. 
Mosquito : 

disease-carrying, 43. 

fumigants, 351. 

house, 350. 

illustrated, 32. 

malarial, 43. 



406 



INDEX 



Moth: 

Angoumois Grain, 358. 

Browntail, 292. 

Bud, 298. 

Buffalo, 357. 

characteristics, 34. 

Clothes, 355. 

Codling, 337. 

Definite-marked Tussock, 295. 

Diamond-back, 178. 

European Grain, 359. 

Grape Berry, 341. 

Grape Plume, 301. 

Gypsy, 290. 

Hop Snout, 179. 

Indian-meal, 361. 

Lime-tree Winter, 284. 

Meal Snout, 362. 

Mediterranean Flour, 360, 

Pea, 217. 

Peach Twig, 248. 

Rusty Tussock, 295. 

Strawberry Crown, 234. 

Tussock, 295. 

White-marked Tussock, 295. 
Moth balls, 79, 356. 
Mounding up for borers, 239. 
Mouthparts, biting, 8. 

beetle, 8. 

honeybee, 9. 

horsefly, 9. 

sucking, 9. 
Mxirgantia histrionica, 191. 
Musca domestica, 42, 349. 
Muscidce, 33. 
Myzus cerasi, 318. 

persicce, 198, 320. 

ribis, 319. 



N 



Naphthaline, 79, 354, 356. 
Native Currant Worm, 286. 
Natural enemies of insects, 45. 
Negro Bug, 348. 
Nervous system of insects, 14. 
New York Weevil, 329. 
Nezara hilar is, 221. 
Nico-fume, 76. , 
Nicotine sulphate, 76. 
Noctua clandestina, 140. 
c-nigrum, 142. 



Noctuidce, 36, 140, 328.. 
Northern Grass Worm, 179. 
Notodontidce, 36. 
Nozzles, 100. 

Nursery stock fumigation, 82. 
Nuttall's Blister-beetle, 145. 
Nut Weevils, 368. 
Nymph, defined, 20. 
Nysius ericce, 192. 



O 



Oat Insects (see Wheat). 

Oberea bimaculata, 245. 

Oblique Banded Leaf Roller, 188, 302. 

Odonata, 24. 

(Ecanthus spp., 252. 

CEstridce, 33. 

Oestrus ovis, 372. 

Oil barrier, 194. 

Oil Emulsion : 

distillate, 261, 330. 

kerosene, 73. 

linseed, 74. 
Oil, repellent, for cattle, 373. 
Oncideres cingulata, 250. 
Onion Maggot, 120. 

Barred-winged, 121. 
Onion Thrips, 204. 
Orchard insects, 224. 
Orders, defined, 22. 
Oriental Cockroach, 353. 
Orthoptera, 23. 
Otiorhynchus ovatus, 230. 
Ox Louse : 

Long-nosed, 374. 

Short-nosed, 374. 
Ox Warble, 372. 
Oxyptilus periscelidactylus, 301. 
Oyster-shell Scale, 258. 



Pachymerus chinensis, 366. 

quadrimaculatus, 366. 
Pachynematus extensicornis, 180. 
Pachyzancla bipunctalis, 185. 
Paleacrita vernata, 279. 
Pale-striped Flea-beetle, 157. 
Palmer-worm, 278. 
Papaipema nitela, 132. 
Papilio polyxenes ,170. 



INDEX 



40^ 



Parasites, illustrated, 47. 

introduction of, 49. 
Parasitic insects, 46. 
Paris green, 65. 
Parsley insects (see Celery). 
Parsnip insects (see Celery). 
Pea Aphis, 200. 

Moth, 217. 
Pea Insects (see Bean). 
Peach and Plum Slug, 289. 
Peach Aphis : 

Black, 229, 320. 

Green, 320. 
Peach Bark-beetle, 242. 

Borer, 237. 
Lesser, 240. 

Bud Mite, 331. 

Twig-moth, 248. 
Peach insects (additional) : 

Bud-moth, 298. 

Cherry Leaf-beetle, 263. 

Flat-headed Apple-tree Borer, 237. 

Green June Beetle, 324. 

Indian Euphoria, 323. 

Pear-slug, 288. 

Periodical Cicada, 253. 

Plum Curculio, 332. 

Putnam's Scale, 257. 

San Jose Scale, 254. 

Scurfy Scale, 259. 

Shot-borer, 249. 

Shot Hole Borer, 241. 

Terrapin Scale, 261. 
Peanuts, injury by borer, 127, 
Pear-leaf Blister-mite, 308. 
Pear Midge, 346. 

Psvlla, 313. 

Slug, 288. 

Thrips, 329. 
Pear insects (additional) : 

Apple Twig-borer, 250. 

Browntail Moth, 292. 

Bud-moth, 298. 

Cigar Case-bearer, 306. 

European Grain Aphis, 317. 

Flat-headed Apple-tree Borer, 237. 

Green Fruit Worm, 325. 

Green June Beetle, 324. 

Gypsy Moth, 290. 

Indian Euphoria, 323. 

Oblique Banded Leaf Roller, 302. 

Oyster-shell Scale, 258. 



Pistol Case-bearer, 307. 

Plant-bugs, 347. 

San Jose Scale, 254. 

Scurfy Scale, 259. 

Shot Borer, 249. 

Shot Hole Borer, 241. 

Terrapin Scale, 261. 

Tussock Moths, 295. 
Pear insects (see also Apple). 
Pea Weevil, 368. 
Pecan, Twig-girdler, 250. 

Weevil, 368. 
Pectinate antenna, 6. 
Pediculidce, 28. 
Pegomya brassicce, 118. 

fusciceps, 121. 

vicina, 189. 
Pelidnota, Spotted, 262. 
Pelidnota punctata, 262. 
Pemphigus hetce, 115. 
Pentatoma ligata, 221. 
Pcntatomidce, 28. 
Peridroma margaritosa, 328. 
Periodical Cicada, 253. 
Periplaneta americana, 353. 

australasice, 353. 
Peronea minuta, 300, 306. 
Persian insect powder, 76. 
Pests : 

domestic animals, 371, 

field crops, 107. 

fruit, 224. 

garden, 107. 

household, 349. 

orchard, 224. 

stored products, 349. 
Pharynx of insects, 13. 
Phasmidce, 23. 
Phlegethontius quinquemaculata, 168. 

sexta, 168. 
Phloeophthorus liminaris, 242. 
Phlyctcenia ferrugalis, 186. 
Pholiis achemon, 272. 
Phorbia cepetorum, 120. 

rubivora, 245. 
Phorodon humuli, 203, 321. 
Phthorimcea operculella, 117, 189, 
Phyllotreta pusilla, 159. 

vittata, 158. 
Phylloxera, Grape, 227. 
Phylloxera vastatrix, 221 . 
Phytonomus nigrirostis, 166. 



408 



INDEX 



Phytonomus posticus, 162. 

punctatus, 164. 
Pickle Worm, 215. 
Pieridoe, 36. 
Pimpla, 37. 
Piophila casei, 358. 
Pistol Case-bearer, 307. 
Pithy-gall, Blackberry, 247. 
Plant-bug : 

Cotton Boll, 221. 

Tarnished, 192, 347. 
Plant-bug (see Bug) . 
Planting, time of, 57. 
Plant-lice (see Aphis). 
Plague, bubonic, 44. 
Plant-louse, Potato, 202. 
Plaster of Paris, 353. 
Plodia inter punctella, 361. 
Plowing, fall, 56. 
Plum Aphis : 

Brown, 321. 

Mealy, 321. 
Plum Curculio, 332. 

Gouger, 334. 
Plum insects (additional) : 

Browntail Moth, 292. 

Bud-moth, 298. 

Cherry Leaf-beetle, 263. 

Cherry Scale, 257. 

European Fruit-scale, 257. 

Green June Beetle, 324. 

Gypsy Moth, 290. 

Hop Aphis, 321. 

Lesser Peach-borer, 240. 

Peach and Plum Slug, 289. 

Peach-borer, 237. 

Peach Bark-beetle, 242. 

Pear-slug, 288. 

Resplendent Shield-bearer, 310. 

San Jose Scale, 254. 

Shot-borer, 249. 

Shot Hole Borer, 241. 

Terrapin Scale, 261. 
Plum-tree Sphinx, 274. 
Plume-moth, Grape, 301. 
Plusia simplex, 178. 
Plutella maculipennis, 177—178. 
Pcecilocapsus lineatus, 311. 
Poison : 

ant, 352. 

bran mash, 68. 

fly, 350. 



fungicide, combined, 85. 

hairs, 294. 

insect, 65. 
Polychrosis .viteana, 341, 
Pontia protodice, 177. 

rapce, 176. 

scales, illustrated, 33. 
Porthetria dispar, 290. 
Potato-beetle : 

Colorado, Frontispiece, 63, 145. 

Three-lined, 146. 
Potato Flea-beetle, 156. 

Plant-louse, 202. 

Stalk-borer, 135. 

Tuber Worm, 117. 
Potato insects (additional) : 

Blister-beetles, 144. 

Carrot Beetle, 124. 

Leather Jackets, 110, 

Stalk Borer, 132. 

White Grubs, 109. 

Wireworms, 107. 
Potato, Sweet (see Sweet Potato). 
Poultry, value of, 57. 
Poultry : 

Itch Mite, 378. 

Lice, 377. 
Powder gun, 99. 
Power sprayers, 97. 
Predaceous insects, 46. 
Prionid Borers, 232. 
Prionus spp., 232. 
Prodenia ornithogalli, 213. 
Protective resemblance, 45. 

Washes, 79. 
Prune insects (see Plum). 
Pruner, Twig, 251. 
Pseudococcus calceolarice, 115. 

citri, 206. 

longispinus, 206. 
Psila rosoe, 122. 
Psoroptes communis, 376. 
Psylla, Pear, 313. 
Psylla pyricola, 313. 
Psyllidce, 28. 

Psylliodes punctulata, 162. 
Pteronus ribesii, 285. 
Pulvillus of insects, 10. 
Pumpkin insects (see Squash). 
Pumps : 

automatic, 93. 

barrel, 94. 



INDEX 



409 



Pumps {continued): 

bucket, 92. 

compressed air, 98. 

dusting apparatus, 99. 

hand, 92. 

horizontal, 95. 

knapsack, 93. 

power outfits, 97. 

traction outfits, 96. 
Pupa, defined, 20. 
Putnam's Scale, 257. 
Pyralis farinalis, 362. 
PyraustidcB, 35. 
Pyrethrum, as fumigant, 76, 351. 

Q 

Quince Curculio, 336. 
Quince insects (additional) : 

Cigar Case-bearer, 306. 

Resplendent Shield-bearer, 310. 

Terrapin Scale, 261. 
Quince insects (see also Apple) . 

n 

Radish insects (see Cabbage) . 
Railroad Worm, 343. 
Raspberry Byturus, 342. 

Cane-borer, 245. 

Cane-maggot, 245. 

Root-borer, 234. 

Sawfly, 287. 

Spanworm, 327. 
Raspberry Insects (additional), (see 

Blackberry). 
Reason, in insects, 18. 
Reduviidce, 28. 
Red Bugs, Apple, 348. 
Red-humped Apple Caterpillar, 271. 
Red-necked Cane-borer, 244. 
Red Spider, 207, 322. 
Removing crop remnants, 57. 
Repellents, 79. 

Ant Tape, 352. 

Oil, 373. 
Resemblance, protective, 45. 
Resin-lime mixture, 66. 
Resin soap, 66. 

Respiratory system, of insects, 11. 
Resplendent Shield-bearer, 310. 
Rhagoletis cingulata, 345. 

pomonella, 343. 



Rhopobota vacciniana, 299. 
Rhubarb Curculio, 138. 
Rhynchites, 29. 
Rice Weevil, 364. 
Roach : 

American, 353. 

Australian, 353. 

German, 353. 

Oriental, 353. 
Robber flies, 32. 
Root-aphis : 

Apple, 226. 

Beet, 115. 

Corn, 113. 

Peach, 229, 320. 

Strawberry, 229. 
Root-borer : 

Clover, 116. 

Grape, 231. 

Raspberry, 234. 

Sweet Potato, 117. 
Root-louse, Strawberry, 229. 
Root-worm : 

Grape, 224. 

Southern Corn, 111. 

Western Corn, 111. 
Rose-chafer, 322. 

Rose insects (see Greenhouse Insects) . 
Rose Scale, 260. 

Slugs, 181. 
Rosy Apple Aphis, 317. 
Rotation of crops, 55. 
Round-headed Apple-tree Borer, 235. 
Rust-fly, Carrot, 122. 
Rust-red Flour Beetle, 364. 
Rusty Tussock Moth, 19, 295. 
Rye insects (see Wheat) . 



Saddle-back Caterpillar, 183. 
Salt-marsh Caterpfllar, 182. 
Saltpeter, 351. 
San Jose Scale, 254. 
Sanninoidea exitiosa, 237. 
Saperda Candida, 235. 
Saturniidce, 36. 
Sawfly : 

characteristics, 37. 

Grape, 287. 

illustrated, 36. 

Raspberry, 287. 



410 



INDEX 



Sawfly {continued): 

saws, illustrated, 37. 

Strawberry, 288. 

Western Grass-stem, 129. 

Wheat, 180. 
Saw-toothed Grain Beetle, 364. 
Scab-mite, Sheep, 376. 
Scale : 

Cottony Maple, 260. 

Cherry, 257. 

European Fruit, 257. 

European Fruit Lecanium, 260. 

Oyster-shell, 258. 

Putnam's, 257. 

Rose, 260. 

San Jose, 254. 

Scurfy, 259. 

Terrapin, 261. 
Scales of Lepidoptera, 33. 
Scaraboeidce, 30. 
Schistoceros hamatus, 250. 
Schizoneura lanigera, 226. 
Schizura concinna, 271. 
Scolytus rugulosus, 241. 
Screens for plants, 60. 
Screw- worm, 374. 
Scurfy Scale, 259. 
Seed-caterpillar, Clover, 217. 
Seed-corn Agonoderus, 125. 

Maggot, 121. 
Seed ticks, 375. 
Selandria vitis, 287. 
Self-boiled lime sulphur, 88. 
Semasia nigricana, 217. 
Senses of insects, 16. 
Serrate antenna, 6. 
Sesiidce, 35. 

Seventeen-year Locust, 253. 
Sharpshooters, Cotton, 222. 
Sheep Bot-fly, 372. 

Scab-mite, 376. 

Tick, 376. 
Shield-bearer, Resplendent, 310. 
Short-nosed Ox Louse, 374. 
Shot-borer, 249. 
Shot Hole Borer, 241. 
Sibine stimulea, 183. 
Sight, powers of, 16. 
Silkworm moths, 36. 
Silphidce, 30. 

Silvanus surinamensis, 364, 
Silver Fish, 357. 



Simulidce, 32. 
Sinea diadema, 46. 
Siphonaptera, 30. 
Siphocoryne avence, 198, 317. 
Sitones flavescens, 167. 
Sitotroga cerealella, 358. 
Skeletonizer : 

Apple-leaf, 277. 

Grape-leaf, 276. 
Skipper, Cheese, 358. 
Skippers, characteristics of, 34. 
Sleeping sickness, 44. 
Slender Seed-corn Ground-beetle, 124. 
Slug: 

Peach and Plum, 289. 

Pear, 288. 

Rose, 181. 
Smaller Corn Stalk-borer, 127. 
Smeared Dagger, 275. 
Smell, sense of, 16. 
Snout beetle : 

characteristics of, 29. 

Imbricated, 167, 329. 
Snout beetle (see Curculio, and Weevil) . 
Snout-moth : 

Hop, 179. 

Meal, 362. 
Soap solution, 77. 

whale-oil, 77. 
Sodium arsenite, 352. 
Sorghum Midge, 219. 
Southern Beet Webworm, 185. 

Cabbage Worm, 177. 

Corn Root-worm, 111. 
Spanworm: 

Cranberry, 283. 

Currant, 282. 

Elm, 283. 

Raspberry, 327. 
Sphecina, 38, 39. 
Sphecodina abbottii, 273. 
Sphenophorus costipennis, 128. 

maidis, 128. 

spp., 128. 

zeae, 128. 
Sphingidw, 36. 
Sphinx : 

Abbott's, 273. 

Achemon, 272. 

Plum-tree, 274. 
Sphinx drupiferarum, 274. 
Spider, Red, 207, 322. 



INDEX 



411 



Spilonota ocellana, 298. 
Spinach Aphis, 198. 

Flea-beetle, 159. 

Leaf -miner, 189. 
Spinach insects (additional), (see Beets). 
Spiracles of insects, 12. 
Split-worm, 189. 
Spotted fever, 44. 
Spotted Pelidnota, 262. 
Spray machinery : 

accessories, 100. 

general principles, 89. 

pumps, 92. 

tanks, 103. 

tower, 95. 
Spread of insects, 40. 
Spring Canker-worm, 279. 

Grain-aphis, 196. 
Square-borer, Cotton, 213. 
Squash Borer, 134. 

Bug, 190. 

Lady Beetle, 148. 
Squash insects (additional) : 

Cucumber Flea-beetle, 156. 

Melon Caterpillar, 216. 

Pickle Worm, 215. 

Striped Cucumber Beetle, 150. 

Twelve-spotted Cucumber Beetle, 
152. 
Stable Fly, 349. 
Stalk Borer, 132. 

Potato. 135. 
Stem-borer, Lima Bean, 136. 
Stem-girdler, Currant, 246. 
Stickers, for spray materials, 66. 
Stinkbugs, 28. 
Stigmata, 12. 
Stomach of insects, 13. 
Stomoxys calcitrans, 349. 
Stored Product pests, 349. 
Strainers, 103. 
Strawberry Crown-borer, 233. 

Crown-girdler, 230. 

Crown Moth, 234. 

Flea-beetle, 266. 

Leaf-beetle, 263. 

Leaf-roller, 303. 

Root-louse, 229. 

Sawfly, 288. 

Weevil, 337. 
Strawberry insects (additional) : 

Cranberry Spanworm, 283. 



Grape Colaspis, 263. 

Green Fruit Worm, 325. 

Melon Aphis, 199. 

Oblique Banded Leaf Roller, 302. 

Smeared Dagger, 275. 

White Grubs, 225. 
Straw- worm. 

Barley, 130. 

Wheat, 131. 
Striped Blister-beetle, 144. 

Cucumber Beetle, 150. 

Flea-beetle, 158. 

Garden Caterpillar, 171. 
Structure of insects: 

External, 7. 

Internal, 11. 
Suck-fly, Tobacco, 195. 
Sucking insects, insecticides for, 70. 
Sucking Lice, on animals, 374. 
Sucking mouthparts, 9. 
Sugar-beet insects (see Beet). 
Sugar-beet Webworm, 184. 
Sugar-cane Beetle, 123. 

Borer, 126. 

Mealy-bug, 115. 
Sulphate of nicotine, 76. 
Sulphur and lime, for poultry lice, 377. 
Sulphur, burning, 82. 

for bedbugs, 355. 

spray, 207, 321. 
Summer strength lime sulphur, 87. 
Swallow-tail Butterfly, 170. 
Sweet Potato Beetle, Two-striped, 155. 

Flea-beetle, 161. 

Root-borer, 117. 

Tortoise Beetles, 154. 
Synanthedon pictipes, 240. 
Synchlora cerata, 327. 
Syrphidce, 33. 
Syrphus flies, 33. 
Systena tceniata, 158. 

tceniata var. blanda, 157. 



TabanidoB, 32, 379. 
Tabanus, 31. 
Tachina flies, 33, 48. 
Tachinidce, 33. 
Tanks, 103. 
Tape, Ant, 352. 
Tar frames, 196. 



412 



INDEX 



Tarnished Plant-bug, 192, 347. 
Tarsonemus woetei, 331. 
Tarsus of insects, 9. 
Taste, Powers of, 16. 
Tenebrio molitor, 369. 
Tenebroides mauritanicus, 364. 
Tent CaterpUlar, 266. 

killed by bacteria, 51. 

killed by fungus, 50. 

Forest, 269. 
Tenthredinidce, 37. 
Terrapin Bug, 191. 

Scale, 261. 
Tetranychus bimaculatus, 207, 322. 
Thorax of insects, 9. 
Three-lined Potato Beetle, 146. 
Thrips : 

characteristics of, 25. 

Flower, 26, 331. 

Grass, 204. 

Greenhouse, 203. 

Onion, 204. 

Pear, 329. 

Tobacco, 204. 
Thrips tabaci, 204. 
Thyreocoridce, 28. 
Thyreocoris pulicaria, 348. 
Thyridopteryx ephemerceformis, 307. 
Thysanoptera, 25. 
Tibia of insects, 9. 
Tibicen septendecim, 253. 
Ticks and disease, 44. 
Tick: 

Cattle, 375. 

Sheep, 376. 
Time of planting, 57. 
Timothy insects : 

Army Worm, 172. 

BUl-bugs, 128. 

Chinch-bug, 193. 

Fall Army Worm, 173. 

Grasshoppers, 142. 

Grass Thrips, 204. 

Leather Jackets, 110. 

Northern Grass Worm, 179. 

Root-worms, 111. 

Wheat-head Army-worm, 214. 

Wheat-stem Maggot, 131. 

White Grubs, 109. 
Tinea granella, 359. 

pellionella, 355. 
Tineina, 35. 



Tingitidce, 28. 
TipulidcB, 110. 
Tischeria malifoliella, 309. 
Tmetocera ocellana, 298. 
Toads, value of, 46. 
Tobacco Budworm, 213. 

dust, 79. 

extract, commercial, 75. 

extract, home-made, 76. 

False Budworm, 211. 

Flea-beetle, 159. 

fumigation, 83. 

Leaf -miner, 189, 

Split-worm, 189. 

Suck-fly, 195. 

Thrips, 204. 

Worms, 168. 
Tobacco insects (additional) : 

Celery Leaf-tier, 186. 

Cutworms, 140. 
Tomato Flea-beetle, 156. 

Fruit-worm, 211. 

Worms, 168. 
Tomato insects (additional) : 

Colorado Potato-beetle, 145. 

Cucumber Flea-beetle, 156. 

Stalk Borer, 132. 
Tongue of cricket, 16. 
Tortoise Beetle, 154. 

Black-legged, 155. 

Golden, 155. 
Tortricidce, 35. 
Touch, sense of, 17. 
Tower, for spraying; 95. 
Toxoptera graminum, 196. 
Tracheal system of insects, 11. 
Traction outfits, 96. 
Transformations of insects, 19. 
Trap crops, 62. 
Traps, insect, 62. 
Tree Crickets, 252. 
Tree-hopper, Buffalo, 253. 
Triangular Flea-beetle, 160. 
Triboliuyn confusum, 364. 

navale, 364. 
Trichobaris trinotata, 135. 
Trichodectes parumpilosus, 375. 

scalaris, 375. 

sphcerocephalus, 375. 
Trochanter of insects, 9. 
True bugs, 26. 
Trumpet Miner, Apple Leaf, 309. 



INDEX 



413 



Tuberculosis, 42. 
Tub, fumigating, 200. 
Turnip insects (see Cabbage). 
Turpentine, for Sheep-bots, 372. 
Tussock Moth : 

Definite Marked, 295. 

Rusty, 19, 295. 

White Marked, 295. 
Twelve-spotted Asparagus Beetle, 154. 

Cucumber Beetle, 152. 
Twig-borer, Apple, 250. 
Twig-girdler, 250. 
Twig-moth, Peach, 248. 
Twig-pruner, 251. 

Two-striped Sweet Potato Beetle, 155. 
Tychea brevicornis, 115. 
Tyloderma fragarice, 233. 
Types of antennae, 6. 
Typhlocyba comes, 311. 
Typhoid fever, 42. 
Typophorus canellus, 263. 



U 



Uranotes melinus, 213. 



Valves, 90. 
Veratrum album, 68. 
Vermorel nozzle, 100. 
Vespina, 39. 

Virginia Creeper, caterpillars on, 272, 
275. 

W 

Walking Sticks, 23. 
Warble, Ox, 372. 
Washes, protective, 79. 
Wasps, 38-39. 
Webworm : 

Cabbage, 185. 

Corn-root, 112. 

Fall, 296. 

Garden, 183. 

Southern Beet, 185. 

Sugar-beet, 184. 
Weeds, 57. 
Weevil : 

•Alfalfa Leaf, 162. 

Bean, 365. 

Chestnut, 368. 

Clover Leaf, 164. 



Cotton Boll, 208. 

Cowpea, 366. 

Flavescent Clover, 167. 

Four-spotted Bean, 366. 

Granary, 364. 

Hickory Nut, 368. 

Larger Chestnut, 368. 

Lesser Clover Leaf, 166. 

New York, 329. 

Nut, 368. 

Pea, 368. 

Pecan, 368. 

Rice, 364. 

Stored products, 364. 

Strawberry, 337. 
Western Cabbage Flea-beetle, 159 

Corn Root-worm, 111. 

Grass-stem Sawfly, 129. 
Whale-oil soap, 77. 
Wheat-head Army-worm, 214. 
Wheat Midge, 218. 

Sawfiies, 180. 
Wheat-stem Maggot, 131. 
Wheat Straw-worm, 131. 

Wireworm, 107. 
Wheat insects (additional) : 

Aphis, 222. 

Army Worm, 172. 

Blister-beetles, 144. 

Chinch-bug, 193. 

European Grain Aphis, 198. 

Fall Army Worm, 173. 

Grass-stem Sawfly, 129. 

Grass Thrips, 204. 

Hessian-fly, 139. 

Joint-worm, 129. 

Leather Jackets, 110. 

Plant Lice, 222. 

Spring Grain-aphis, 196. 

Stalk Borer, 132. 

White grubs, 10^. 

Wireworm s, 107. 
White-fly, Greenhouse, 205. 
White Grubs, 109, 225. 
White Lead, for borers, 236. 
White Marked Tussock Moth, 295. 
Whitewash, carbolated, 242. 
Wire cloth, 103. 

probe, 236. 
Wireworms, 107. 

Wheat, 107. 
Wood veneer, 236. 



414 



INDEX 



Woolly Apple Aphis, 226. 
Worm : 

Apple, 337. 

Army, 172. 

Bag, 307. 

Barley Straw, 130. 

Beet Army, 174. 

Blackhead Cranberry, 299. 

Cabbage Web, 185. 

Clover-hay, 186. 

Corn Ear, 211. 

Corn Root Web, 112. 

Cotton, 175. 

Cotton Boll, 211. 

Cranberry Fruit, 326. 

Cranberry Span, 283. 

Cross-striped Cabbage, 177. 

Currant Span, 282. 

Cut, 140, 213, 328. 

Elm Span, 283. 

FaU Army, 173. 

Fall Canker, 281. 

Fall Web, 296. 

False Army, 274. 

Garden Web, 183. 

Gooseberry Fruit, 326. 

Grape Root, 224. 

Green Fruit, 325. 

Imported Cabbage, 176. 

Imported Currant, 285. 

Joint, 129. 

Lesser Apple, 339. 

Native Currant, 286. 

Northern Grass, 179. 

Palmer, 278. 

Pickle, 215. 

Potato-tuber, 117. 

Railroad, 343. 

Raspberry Span, 327. 



Screw, 374. 

Southern Beet Web, 185. 

Southern Corn Root, 111. 

Spring Canker, 279. 

Sugar Beet Web, 184. 

Tobacco, 168. 

Tobacco Bud, 213. 

Tobacco False Bud, 211. 

Tomato, 168. 

Tornato Fruit, 211. 

Western Corn Root, 111. 

Wheat-head Army, 214. 

Wheat Straw, 131. 

Wire, 107. 

Yellowhead Cranberry, 300. 

Yellow Meal, 369. 
Worms (see also Caterpillar, Grub. 

Moth, Beetle). 
Wrigglers, 350. 

X 

Xyleborus dispar, 249. 

pyri, 249. 
Xylina antennata, 325. 

laticinerea, 326. 



Yellow-bear Caterpillar, 181. 
Yellow fever, 44. 

Yellowhead Cranberry Worm, 300. 
Yellow Mealworm, 369. 
Yellow-necked Caterpillar, 270. 
Ypsolophus pometellus, 278. 



Zebra-caterpillar, 171. 
Zophodia grossularice, 326. 



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